சேரர்
Cheras

Chera territories
Official languages	Tamil
Capitals	Vanchi Muthur Karur
Government	Monarchy
Preceding state	Unknown
Succeeding states	Gangas, Zamorins, Kochi, Travancore, Hoysala, Vijayanagara

The Chera dynasty (Tamil: சேரர்) was one of the ancient Tamil dynasties that ruled southern India from ancient times until around the fifteenth century CE. The Early Cheras ruled over the Coimbatore, Karur and Salem Districts in South India, which now forms part of the modern day Tamil Nadu (Kongu Nadu and northern Kerala states of India. The other two major Tamil dynasties were the Cholas in the eastern Coromandel Coast and Pandyas in the south central peninsula. These dynasties began ruling before the Sangam era (300 BCE - 200 CE) during which the Tamil language, arts and literature flourished.

The Sangam Chera capital was Vanchi Muthur (otherwise called Karuvur, modern Karur)^[1]. Their kingdom ranged from Coimbatore, Namakkal, Karur, Salem, Dharmapuri and Erode in Tamil Nadu, also controlling areas closer to the region from Malai Nadu or hill country (modern Kerala). Chera rulers warred frequently with their neighbouring kingdoms. They sometimes inter-married with the families of the rival kings as a means of political alliances. Throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to Tamil Country (part of which is modern north Kerala), with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to Egypt, Rome, Greece, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Evidence for extensive foreign trade from ancient times is available throughout the Malabar coast, from the Roman, Greek and Arabic coins unearthed from Kollam, Kodungallur, Eyyal (near Trissur) in Northern Kerala. Kodungallur was a flourishing port on the Malabar coast. Muziris, has been referenced by ancient writers, such as the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea to be an inland port probably Musiri near Karur in TamilNadu upstream from Argaru of Periplus (Urayur) on the river Kaveri. Sangam Cheran coins and inscriptions are found only in Karur, Erode and Coimbatore region of modern Tamil Nadu, which is called Kongu Nadu.

While Cheras had their own religion (Hinduism), other religious traditions came to this area during the period of the Chera kings. Both Buddhism and Jainism came to Kerala by the second century BCE. Trade with the West established early contact with Judaism and Christianity. ^[2]

The second Chera kingdom, also called the post bhakti age kollam Cheras ruled from Kodungalloor. Probably of early Chera feudatory origin and not directly related to the Cheras themselves, there seems to be a major shift in the culture of Kerala during this period.

History

In early Tamil literature the Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai and Athan. Chera rulers were also called Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called Cheraman in general. The word Kerala, of possible Prakrit origins, does not appear in Sangam Literature. The first known mention of Kerala occurs on one of the rock inscriptions left by Ashoka during the third century B.C. Ashoka's edicts mention an independent dynasty known by the name Keraputta, who were outside Ashoka's empire. The unknown author of Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Chera as Cerobothra whose capital is Karur, while Pliny, the Roman historian of the first century, calls it Caelobothras. Keralam is also seen as a Prakritisation Chera Alam (or land ruled by the Cheras) of the Malainadu or 'hill country'.

Sangam Cheras

The only source available for us regarding the early Chera Kings is the anthologies of the Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries CE.^[3] The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled. The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these are not worked into connected history so far. Their capital is stated to be modern Karur in Tamilnadu and were also called Kongars.

Pathirruppaththu, the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology mentions a number of Chera Kings of the Chera dynasty. Each King is praised in ten songs sung by the Court Poet and the Kings are in the following order:

1. Nedum Cheralathan,
2. Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan,
3. Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral,
4. Kadal Pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan,
5. Attu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan,
6. Chelva Kadunko Azhi Athan,
7. Thakadur Erintha Perum Cheral Irumporai,
8. Kudako Ilam Cheral Irumporai.

The first two kings were the sons of Uthiyan Cheralathan and Veliyan Nallini. The third, fourth and fifth kings were sons of Nedum Cheralathan, while the mother of fourth King (also known as Chenkuttuvan) was Chola Princess Manikilli. Chelva Kadunko Azhiyathan was the son of Anthuvan Cheral Irumporai and Porayan Perumthevi. Perum Cheral Irumporai was the son of Azhiyathan and Ilam Cheral Irumporai was the son of a Chera ruler Kuttuvan Irumporai (son of Mantharan Cheral Irumporai).

Archaeology has also found epigraphic evidence regarding these early Cheras.^[4] The most important of these is the Pugalur (Aranattarmalai) inscription. This inscription refers to three generations of Chera rulers Adam Cheral Irrumporai, his son Perumkadungo, and his son Ilamkadungo. The charter was issued when Perum Kadungo was the ruler monarch and Ilam Kadungo was appointed prince. Athan refers only to a crowned King of Chera dynasty who accepted this title at the time of coronation. Athan Cheral Irumporai was the son of Perum Cheral Irumporai. It therefore follows that Perumkadungo was the son of a crowned King of the Chera Dynasty. Perum Kadunko means that he was the Senior Ko (Senior ruler) of Kadunadu, located in the Tamilnadu side of the Sahya Mountains.

'Purananuru' refers to Udiyan Cheral, who probably ruled in the first – second centuries CE. It is said that he fed the rival armies during the war of Mahabharata. Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan, another Sangam age king claimed to have conquered up to the Himalayas and to have inscribed his emblem in the face of the mountains. Senguttuvan was another famous Chera, whose contemporary Gajabahu II of Lanka according to Mahavamsa visited the Chera country.^[5]

The early Cheras controlled a large territory from Karur in Tamil Nadu to Muziris in the west coast. They were in contact with the Satavahanas in the north and with the Romans and Greeks.^[6] Trade flourished overseas and there was a considerable exchange of gold and coins, as seen by archaeological evidence and literature. The Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange of 'Kari' (Pepper) and precious Stones and a large number of Roman coins have been found in sites on the Malabar coast as well as in the districts of Coimbatore, Namakkal, Karur and Salem in Tamilnadu.

Medieval Cheras

Little is known about the Cheras between c. third century CE and the eight century CE. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the sixth century CE. A Pandya ruler, Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman (c.730 – 765CE), mentioned in a number of Pandya copper-plate inscriptions, was a prominent ruler during this period. He claims to have defeated a prominent Chera king. The name of the Chera king is not known, however from the details of the battles between the Pandya and the Chera, the Chera territory ceded seems to have included the entire Malabar coast and the southern Pandya country from Kanyakumari to Thirunelveli. The Chera kings took the title of Perumal during this period and patronised the Vaishnavite sect. Kulasekara Alwar who ruled in the 8th century became a devotional Vaishnavite poet. Pallavas also mention in their inscriptions about their battles with the Cheras. Pulakesin II, in his Aihole inscription mentioned " Pulikesin II, driving the Pallava behind the forts of Kanchi, reached as far south as the Kaveri river, and there caused prosperity to the Chola, Kerala and Pandya".^[7]

In the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765 – 790), the Cheras were still in Karur and were a close ally of the Pallavas. Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the help of a Chera king. Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the Chera country were common.^[8] Two of the Chera kings of this period, The Saivite saint Cheraman Perumal and the other is the Vaishnavite saint Kulasekhara, were famous in the Hindu religious movements. Kulasekhara became one of the celebrated Alvars and his poems came to be called the Perumal Thirumozhi. Cheraman Perumal ruled around the eighth and the ninth centuries. Adi Shankara was his contemporary.

Keralavarman Cheras

Rajasekhara Varman (820-44) marked the beginning of the Kollam Era in 825. He is also reputed to have issued the Vazhappali Inscription, the first epigraphical record of the Second Chera Kingdom. Rajasekhara Varma was followed by Sthanu Ravi Varman (844-55), a contemporary of the Chola king, Aditya I. With the rise of the Cholas of the Vijayalaya dynasty around the middle of the ninth century, the Cheras found that they had to deal with another powerful rival. Aditya I, (c. 871 – c. 907 CE) expanded the Chola kingdom by defeating the Pallavas. He was on friendly terms with the Chera king Sthanu Ravi.^[9] Aditya married one of Sthanu Ravi's daughters. Sankaranarayana, who composed the astronomical work Sankaranarayaniyam, attended his court.

The Cheras faced total defeat at the hands of the great Chola king Rajaraja Chola. He invaded Kerala in 994 and destroyed the navy of the Chera king Bhaskara Ravi Varman Thiruvadi (c. 978 – 1036 CE) in the battle of Kandalur Salai. The Chera dynasty went into a temporary decline after this defeat, although the remnants of the Cheras continued to cause trouble for their Chola overlords. Rama Varma Kulasekhara (1090-1102) was the last of the Chera kings. He moved his capital to Kollam when the Cholas sacked Mahodyapuram during his reign. His death signalled the end of the Chera Kingdom, from the ruins of which arose the independent kingdom of Venad.

Venad Cheras

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From about the beginning of twelfth century, southern Kerala was under Venad rulers, who asserted their independence from the main Chera rulers. They traced their descent from the Ay kings of the eighth century. A number of kings such as Kodai Kerala Varma, Udaya Martanda Varma (1175-1195), Vira Rama Kerala Varma, and Ravi Kerala Varma, ruled over the kingdom. The greatest of these was Ravivarman Kulasekhara (1299-1314). He was a feudatory of the Pandya Maravarman Kulasekara (1268 - 1311) and married one of his daughters. At the death of Maravarman Kulasekhara, he staked his claim to the Pandya throne and started issuing records as an independent sovereign. During this period, Malik Kafur raided the region and unsettled power relations. Ravivarman Kulasekhara, taking advantage of the unsettled nature of the country, quickly overran the surrounding country and brought the entire south, from Kanyakumari to Kanchipuram, under the Venad Chera kingdom. His inscription is found in Punaamalli, a suburb of Madras. His capital was Kollam. A scholar and musician himself, he patronised intellectuals and poets during his tenure. The Sanskrit drama Pradyumnabhyudayam is credited to him. Trade and commerce also flourished during his rule, and Kollam became a famous centre of business and enterprise. Soon after his death in 1314, Kerala became a conglomeration of warring chieftaincies among which by the 18 th century after the subjugation of the smaller kingdoms by Calicut and Travancore the most important were Calicut in the North, Travancore in the South and Kingdom of Cochin in the middle with Cochin as the smallest of three. Though initially the larger of the small kingdoms, Cochin reduced in size by the invasions of Travancore and Calicut in 18th centuary. The Venad kingdom lingered on until the middle of the 18th century before it disintegrated. The Zamorins were the hereditary rulers of Calicut who traced their lineage to the old Perumal dynasty of Kerala. Calicut emerged as a major seaport during the reign of the Zamorins. Trade with foreigners, such as the Chinese and Arabs, was the main source of revenue for the Zamorins.

Footnotes

References

Middle kingdoms of India
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