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Egyptian r n km.t <hiero>r:Z1 n km m t:O49</hiero>
Spoken in:	Ancient Egypt
Language extinction:	evolved into Demotic by 600 BC, into Coptic by AD 200, and was extinct by the 17th century
Language family:	}}}  Egyptian}}}
Writing system:	hieroglyphs, cursive hieroglyphs, hieratic, demotic and Coptic (later, occasionally Arabic script in government translations)
Language codes
ISO 639-1:	none
ISO 639-2:	egy
ISO 639-3:	egy
Ebers Papyrus detailing treatment of asthma.

Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to Berber, Semitic, and Beja.^[1] The language survived until the 5th century AD in the form of Demotic and until the late 17th century AD in the form of Coptic. Written records of the Egyptian language have been dated from about 3200 BC, making it one of the oldest recorded languages known. The national language of modern day Egypt is Egyptian Arabic, which gradually replaced Coptic Egyptian as the language of daily life in the centuries after the Muslim conquest of Egypt. Coptic is still used as a liturgical language by the Coptic Church, and reportedly has a handful of native speakers today.^[2][3]

Periodization

Scholars group the Egyptian language into 6 major chronological divisions:

• Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC)
• Old Egyptian (2600 BC – 2000 BC)
• Middle Egyptian (2000 BC – 1300 BC)
• Late Egyptian (1300 BC – 700 BC)
• Demotic (7th century BC – 5th century AD)
• Coptic (4th century AD – 17th century AD)

Egyptian writing in the form of label and signs has been dated to 3200 BC. These early texts are generally lumped together under the term "Archaic Egyptian."

In 1999, Archaeology Magazine reported that the earliest Egyptian Glyphs date back to 3400 BC which "...challenge the commonly held belief that early logographs, pictographic symbols representing a specific place, object, or quantity, first evolved into more complex phonetic symbols in Mesopotamia."

Old Egyptian was spoken for some 500 years from 2600 BC onwards. Middle Egyptian was spoken from about 2000 BC for a further 700 years when Late Egyptian made its appearance; Middle Egyptian did, however, survive until the first few centuries AD as a written language, similar to the use of Latin during the Middle Ages and that of Classical Arabic today. Demotic Egyptian first appears about 650 BC and survived as a spoken language until fifth century AD. Coptic Egyptian appeared in the fourth century AD and survived as a living language until the sixteenth century AD, when European scholars traveled to Egypt to learn it from native speakers during the Renaissance. It probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that. The Bohairic dialect of Coptic is still used by the Egyptian Christian Churches.

Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using hieroglyphs and hieratic. Demotic was written using a script derived from hieratic; its appearance is vaguely similar to modern Arabic script and is also written from right to left (although the two are not related). Coptic is written using the Coptic alphabet, a modified form of the Greek alphabet with a number of symbols borrowed from Demotic for sounds that did not occur in Ancient Greek.

Arabic became the language of Egypt's political administration soon after the Arab conquest in the seventh century, and gradually replaced Coptic as the language spoken by the populace. Today, Coptic survives as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Coptic Catholic Church.

Structure of the language

Egyptian is a fairly typical Afro-Asiatic language. At the heart of Egyptian vocabulary is a root of three consonants. Sometimes there were only two, for example /raʕ/ "sun" (where the [ʕ] represents a voiced pharyngeal fricative); others, such as /nfr/, which means "beautiful"; and some could be as large as five /sḫdḫd/ "be upside-down". Vowels and other consonants were then added to this root in order to derive words, in the same way as Arabic, Hebrew, and other Afro-Asiatic languages do today. However, it is not known what these vowels would have been, since like many other Afro-Asiatic languages, Egyptian does not write vowels; hence "ankh" could represent either "life", "to live" or "living". In transcription, , , and all represent consonants; for example, the name Tutankhamen was written in Egyptian twt-ʕnḫ-ỉmn. Experts have assigned generic sounds to these values as a matter of convenience; however, this artificial pronunciation has often been mistaken for actual pronunciation.

Phonologically, Egyptian contrasted bilabial, labiodental, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal consonants, in a distribution rather similar to that of Arabic.

Middle Egyptian's basic word order is Verb Subject Object; the equivalent to "the man opens the door", would be a sentence corresponding to "opens the man the door" (wn s ˁ3)

Regarding morphology, Egyptian uses the so-called status constructus construction to combine two or more nouns, similar to Semitic and Berber languages. The early stages of Egyptian possessed no articles, no words for "the" or "a"; later forms used the words p3, t3 and n3 for this purpose. Like other Afro-Asiatic languages, Egyptian uses two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine, similarly to Arabic and Tamasheq. It also uses three grammatical numbers, contrasting singular, dual, and plural forms.

Egyptian writing

Main article: Writing in Ancient Egypt

sẖ3 n mdw nṯr in hieroglyphs

<hiero>Y4 n R8-S43-Z1:Z1:Z1</hiero>

Most surviving texts in the Egyptian language are primarily written on stone in the hieroglyphic script. However, in antiquity, the majority of texts were written on perishable papyrus in hieratic and (later) demotic, which are now lost. There was also a form of cursive hieroglyphic script used for religious documents on papyrus, such as the Book of the Dead in the Ramesside Period; this script was closer to the stone-carved hieroglyphs, but was not as cursive as hieratic, lacking the wide use of ligatures. Additionally, there was a variety of stone-cut hieratic known as lapidary hieratic. In the language's final stage of development, the Coptic alphabet replaced the older writing system. The native name for Egyptian hieroglyphic writing is sẖ3 n mdw nṯr or "writing of the words of god." Hieroglyphs are employed in two ways in Egyptian texts: as ideograms that represent the idea depicted by the pictures; and more commonly as phonograms denoting their phonetic value.

Phonology

Further information: Transliteration of ancient Egyptian

While the consonantal phonology of the Egyptian language may be reconstructed, its exact phonetics are unknown, and there are varying opinions on how to classify the individual phonemes. A peculiarity shared with the Semitic languages is the existence of an "emphatic series" in addition to a voiced vs. voiceless opposition.

Since vowels were not written natively, reconstructions of the Egyptian vowel system are much more uncertain, relying on the evidence of Coptic and Greek transcriptions of Egyptian names.

Because Egyptian is also recorded over full two millennia, the Archaic and Late stages being separated by the amount of time that separates Old Latin from modern Italian, it must be assumed that significant phonetic changes would have occurred over that time.

The vocalization of Egyptian is partially known, largely on the basis of reconstruction from Coptic, in which the vowels are written. Recordings of Egyptian words in other languages provide an additional source of evidence. Scribal errors provide evidence of changes in pronunciation over time. The actual pronunciations reconstructed by such means are used only by a few specialists in the language. For all other purposes the Egyptological pronunciation is used.

Plosives

	bilabials		alveolars		palatals		velars
voiceless	<hiero> p </hiero>	p	<hiero> t </hiero>	t	<hiero> T </hiero>	ṯ (tj, č)	<hiero> k </hiero>	k
voiced	<hiero> b </hiero>	b					<hiero>g</hiero>	g
emphatic			<hiero>d</hiero>	d	<hiero> D </hiero>	ḏ (dj, č̣)	<hiero> q </hiero>	q (ḳ)

Egyptian g may represent two phonemes (g¹ and g²) ^[4], both continuing Afro-Asiatic /g/.

Palatal /c/ ṯ (emphatic /c'/ ḏ) continue Afro-Asiatic /q/ and /k/ (merged with t and d in Demotic)

Fricatives

labials		alveolars				velars		pharyngeals		glottals
<hiero> f </hiero>	f	<hiero> s </hiero>	s (ś)	<hiero> S </hiero>	š	<hiero> X </hiero>	ẖ	<hiero> H </hiero>	ḥ	<hiero> h </hiero>	h
		<hiero>z</hiero>	z			<hiero> x </hiero>	ḫ (x)	<hiero> a </hiero>	ˁ	<hiero> A </hiero>	(3, ȝ)

s and z were collapsed in the Middle Kingdom.

ˁ may have been /d/ in the Old Kingdom, evolving into a pharyngeal in the Middle Kingdom. It is called "Egyptian Ayin" after the Semitic pharyngeal fricative.

The nature of ḫ vs. ẖ is controversial, possibly a voiced vs. voiceless opposition.

3, often identified as "Egyptian Aleph" (a glottal stop), or alternatively a remnant of an r or l phoneme.

<hiero> i </hiero> ı͗, probably an Aleph sound [ʔ].

<hiero> i i </hiero> y (ı͗ı͗) [j]

<hiero> w </hiero> w, either of [w] and [u]

Nasals

<hiero> m </hiero> m <hiero> n </hiero> n

Liquids

<hiero>r</hiero> r

l, in writing expressed as n, r, j, nr or 3^[5]

Traditional alef (3) may also have been a alveolar approximant /ɹ/.

Egyptological pronunciation

As a convention, Egyptologists make use of an "Egyptological pronunciation" in which the consonants are given fixed values and vowels are inserted in accordance with essentially arbitrary rules. Two distinct different consonants, Egyptian alef and the Egyptian ayin, are both often pronounced as /a/. The yodh pronounced as /i/, and similarly, w as /u/. Between the other consonants, /e/ is then inserted. Thus, for example, the Egyptian king whose name is most accurately transliterated as Rˁ-ms-sw is transcribed as "Ramesses", meaning "Ra has Fashioned (lit. "Borne") Him".

Change into Coptic

(Middle) Egyptian consonant	Coptic (Sahidic) consonant
3	y, i
ṯ	t
ḏ	t, d
k	k, g
ḫ, ẖ, ?	š, ḫ, h, ẖ

Grammar

Like most other Afro-Asiatic languages, Old and Middle Egyptian have a Verb–Subject–Object word order. This does not hold true for Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic.

Nouns

Egyptian nouns can be either masculine or feminine (indicated as with other Afro-asiatic languages by adding a -t), and singular, plural (-w / -wt), or dual (-wy / -ty).

Articles (both definite and indefinite) did not develop until Late Egyptian, but are used widely thereafter.

Pronouns

Egyptian has suffix, enclitic (called "dependent" by Egyptologists) and independent personal pronouns. These are as follows:

	Suffix	Dependent	Independent
1st s.	-ı͗	wı͗	ı͗nk
2nd s.m.	-k	tw	ntk
2nd s.f.	-t	tn	ntt
3rd s.m.	-f	sw	ntf
3rd s.f.	-s	sy	nts
1st p.	-n	n	ı͗nn
2nd p.	-tn	tn	nttn
3rd p.	-sn	sn	ntsn

It also has demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these and those), in masculine, feminine, and common plural:

Mas.	Fem.	Neu.
pn	tn	nn	"this, that, these, those"
pf	tf	nf	"that, those"
pw	tw	nw	"this, that, these, those" (archaic)
p3	t3	n3	"this, that, these, those" (colloquial [earlier] and Late Egyptian)

Finally there are interrogative pronouns (what, who, etc.)

mı͗	"who? what?"	(dependent)
ptr	"who? what?"	(independent)
iḫ	"what?"	(dependent)
ı͗šst	"what?"	(independent)
zı͗	"which?"	(independent and dependent)

Verbs

The verbal morphology of Egyptian can be divided into finite and non-finite forms. Finite verbs convey person, tense/aspect, mood, and voice. Each is indicated by a set of affixal morphemes attached to the verb — the basic conjugation is sḏm.f 'he hears'. The non-finite forms occur without a subject and they are the infinitive, the participles and the negative infinitive, which calls "negatival complement". There are two main tenses/aspects in Egyptian: past and temporally unmarked imperfective and aorist forms. The latter are determined from their syntactic context.

Adjectives

Adjectives agree in gender and number with their nouns, for example: s nfr "(the) good man" and st nfrt "(the) good woman".

Attributive adjectives used in phrases fall after the noun they are modifying, such as in "(the) great god" (nṯr ˁ3). However, when used independently as a predicate in an adjectival phrase, such "(the) god (is) great" (ˁ3 nṯr) [lit., "great (is the) god"), the adjective precedes the noun.

Prepositions

Egyptian prepositions come before the noun.

m	"in, as, with, from"
n	"to, for"
r	"to, at"
ı͗n	"by"
ḥnˁ	"with"
mỉ	"like"
ḥr	"on, upon"
ḥ3	"behind, around"
ẖr	"under"
tp	"atop"
ḏr	"since"

Adverbs

Adverbs are words such as "here" or "where?". In Egyptian, they come at the end of a sentence e.g. zỉ.n nṯr ỉm "the god went there", "there" (ỉm) is the adverb.

Some common Egyptian Adverbs:

ˁ3	"here"
ı͗m	"there"
ṯnỉ	"where"
zy-nw	"when" (lit. "what moment")
mı͗-ı͗ḫ	"how" (lit. "like-what")
r-mı͗	"why" (lit. "for what")
ḫnt	"before"

Modern-day resources

Interest in the ancient Egyptian language continues. For example, it is still taught in several universities. Many resources are in French or German, in addition to English so it can be useful to know one of these languages though not a requirement.

For the film Stargate, Egyptologist Stuart Tyson Smith was commissioned to develop a constructed language to simulate the tongue of ancient Egyptians living alone on another planet for millennia. He also created the Egyptian dialogue for The Mummy (1999 film). In the French comedy , a similar attempt was apparently made (source in French). Egyptian taunts and responses are also heard while playing the Egyptian campaign of Age of Mythology

While Egyptian culture is one of the influences of Western civilization, few words of Egyptian origin remain in English. Even those associated with ancient Egypt were usually transmitted in Greek forms. Some examples of Egyptian words that have survived into English include ebony (Egyptian ḥbny), phoenix (Egyptian bnw, literally "heron"; transmitted through Greek), Pharaoh (Egyptian pr-ˁʒ, literally "great house"; transmitted through Hebrew), as well as the proper names Phineas (Egyptian, pʒ-nḥsy, literally "The black one," used as a generic term for Nubian foreigners) and Susan (Egyptian, sšn, literally "lotus flower"; probably transmitted first from Egyptian into Hebrew).

Notes

1. ^ Loprieno 1996.
2. ^ The language may have survived in isolated pockets in Upper Egypt into the 19th century according to James Edward Quibell, When did Coptic become extinct? in: Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 39 (1901), p. 87).
3. ^ Daily Star Egypt. 23 January 2007
4. ^ Wolfgang Schenkel: Glottalisierte Verschlußlaute, glottaler Verschlußlaut und ein pharyngaler Reibelaut im Koptischen, Rückschlüsse aus den ägyptisch-koptischen Lehnwörtern und Ortsnamen im Ägyptisch-Arabischen. In: Lingua Aegyptia 10, 2002. S. 1-57 ISSN 0942-5659. S. 31 ff.
5. ^ another interpretation is suggested by Christopher Ehret: Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. University of California Publications in Linguistics 126, California, Berkeley 1996. ISBN 0520097998

Literature

Overviews

• Loprieno, Antonio, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-521-44384-9 (hbk) ISBN 0-521-44849-2 (pbk)

Grammars

• Allen, James P., Middle Egyptian - An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, first edition, Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-65312-6 (hbk) ISBN 0-521-77483-7 (pbk)
• Collier, Mark, and Manley, Bill, How to Read Egyptian Hieroglyphs : A Step-by-Step Guide to Teach Yourself, British Museum Press (ISBN 0-7141-1910-5) and University of California Press (ISBN 0-520-21597-4), both in 1998.
• Gardiner, Sir Alan H., , Griffith Institute, Oxford, 3rd ed. 1957. ISBN 0-900416-35-1
• Hoch, James E., Middle Egyptian Grammar, Benben Publications, Mississauga, 1997. ISBN 0-920168-12-4

Dictionaries

• Faulkner, Raymond O., A Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Griffith Institute, Oxford, 1962. ISBN 0-900416-32-7 (hardback)
• Lesko, Leonard H., A Dictionary of Late Egyptian, 4 Vols., B.C. Scribe Publications, Berkeley, 1982. ISBN 0-930548-03-5 (hbk), ISBN 0-930548-04-3 (pbk).
• Shennum, David, English-Egyptian Index of Faulkner's Concise Dictionary of Middle Egyptian, Undena Publications, 1977. ISBN 0-89003-054-5

Online dictionaries

• Online Translator'' - Translates English words, sentences, and phrases into ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphic
• The Beinlich Wordlist, an online searchable dictionary of ancient Egyptian words (translations are in German)
• Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae, an online service available from October 2004 which is associated with various German Egyptological projects, including the monumental Altägyptisches Wörterbuch of the Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Brandenburg Academy of Sciences, Berlin, Germany).

Important Note: the old grammars & dictionaries of E. A. Wallis Budge have long been considered obsolete by Egyptologists, even though these books are still available for purchase.

More book information is available at Glyphs and Grammars

See also

• Coptic language
• Demotic
• Egyptian hieroglyphs
• Egyptian languages
• Egyptian numerals
• Hieratic
• Egyptian Arabic
• Transliteration of ancient Egyptian

External links

• Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae
• The Pronunciation of Ancient Egyptian by Kelley L. Ross
• Ancient Egyptian Language Discussion List
• Site offering online courses in the Egyptian Language

•  • [ e] Ancient Egypt-related topics
	Architecture Art Chronology Cuisine Dynasties History Mathematics Medicine Religion Pharaohs People Language Sites Technology Writing Egyptology Egyptologists

•  • [ e] Afro-Asiatic-speaking nations

•  • [ e] Berber  Algeria  Egypt  Libya  Mali  Mauritania  Morocco  Niger  Tunisia  •  • [ e] Chadic  Cameroon  Central African Republic The template is . Please use instead. This usage is deprecated. Please replace it with {{tdeprecated|Egyptian language|Country}}. '''The template is deprecated. Please use instead. The template is . Please use instead. This usage is deprecated. Please replace it with {{tdeprecated|Egyptian language|Country}}. '''The template is deprecated. Please use instead.  Nigeria  •  • [ e] Cushitic Cushitic  Djibouti  Eritrea  Ethiopia  Kenya  Somalia Beja  Egypt  Eritrea The template is . Please use instead. This usage is deprecated. Please replace it with {{tdeprecated|Egyptian language|Country}}. '''The template is deprecated. Please use instead.  •  • [ e] Egyptian    Egypt  •  • [ e] Omotic  Ethiopia  •  • [ e] Semitic Arabic / Maltese  Algeria  Bahrain  Egypt  Iraq  Israel  Jordan  Kuwait  Lebanon  Libya  Malta  Mauritania  Morocco The template is . Please use instead. This usage is deprecated. Please replace it with {{tdeprecated|Egyptian language|Country}}. '''The template is deprecated. Please use instead.  PNA  Qatar  Saudi Arabia  Sudan1  Syria  Tunisia  W. Sahara  Yemen Northwest Semitic2  Iraq  Israel  Syria South Semitic  Eritrea  Ethiopia The template is . Please use instead. This usage is deprecated. Please replace it with {{tdeprecated|Egyptian language|Country}}. '''The template is deprecated. Please use instead.  Yemen 1 excluding Southern Sudan.    2 Aramaic and Hebrew.

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An extinct language is a language which no longer has any native speakers, in contrast to a dead language, which is a language which has stopped changing in grammar, vocabulary, and the complete meaning of a sentence.
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Demotic
Child systems Coptic
Merotitic

→ Old Nubian

ISO 15924 Egyd

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Coptic}}} 
Writing system: Coptic alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-1: none
ISO 639-2: cop
ISO 639-3: cop Coptic or Coptic Egyptian^[3] ( Met.
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A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language. As with biological families, the evidence of relationship is observable shared characteristics.
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writing system is a type of symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in language.

General properties

Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that one must usually understand something of the
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Egyptian hieroglyphs
Child systems Hieratic

ISO 15924 Egyp

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Egyptian hieroglyphs (sometimes called hieroglyphics
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Cursive hieroglyphs are a variety of Egyptian hieroglyphs commonly used for religious documents written on papyrus, such as the Book of the Dead. It was particularly common during the Ramesside Period and many famous documents, such as the Papyrus of Ani, utilize it.
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Hieratic
Child systems Demotic

→ Coptic

→ Merotitic

→ Old Nubian

Byblos syllabary
Sister systems Cursive hieroglyphs

ISO 15924 Egyh

Note
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Demotic
Child systems Coptic
Merotitic

→ Old Nubian

ISO 15924 Egyd

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Coptic alphabet

Sister systems Old Nubian
Latin
Cyrillic
Armenian
Unicode range U+2C80 to U+2CFF
U+03E2 to U+03EF
ISO 15924 Copt

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Arabic abjad

Unicode range U+0600 to U+06FF
U+0750 to U+077F
U+FB50 to U+FDFF
U+FE70 to U+FEFF
ISO 15924 Arab (#160)

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ISO 639-1 is the first part of the ISO 639 international-standard language-code family. It consists of 136 two-letter codes used to identify the world's major languages. These codes are a useful international shorthand for indicating languages.
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ISO 639-2 is the second part of the ISO 639 standard, which lists codes for the representation of the names of languages. The three-letter codes given for each language in this part of the standard are referred to as "Alpha-3" codes. There are 464 language codes in the list.
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ISO 639-3 is an international standard for language codes. It extends the ISO 639-2 alpha-3 codes with an aim to cover all known natural languages. The standard was published by ISO on 5 February 2007^[1].
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Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a language family (Languages of Africa) with about 375 languages (SIL estimate) and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa, East Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, and Southwest Asia (including some 200 million speakers of
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Berber languages / Tamazight are a group of closely related languages mainly spoken in Morocco and Algeria. A very sparse population extends into the whole Sahara and the northern part of the Sahel. They belong to the Afro-Asiatic languages phylum.
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Semitic languages are a family of languages spoken by more than 300 million people across much of the Middle East, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. They constitute the northeastern subfamily of the Afro-Asiatic languages, and the only branch of this group spoken in Asia.
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Beja (also called Bedawi, Bedauye, To Bedawie) is an Afro-Asiatic language of the southern coast of the Red Sea, spoken by about two million nomads, the Beja, in parts of Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea.
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The 5th century is the period from 401 to 500 in accordance with the Julian calendar in Anno Domini, the year of our Lord.

Overview

The Western Roman Empire is ruled by a succession of weak emperors, and true power falls increasingly into the hands of powerful generals.
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Demotic
Child systems Coptic
Merotitic

→ Old Nubian

ISO 15924 Egyd

Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.
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As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th Century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700 in the Gregorian calendar.

The 17th Century falls into the Early Modern period of Europe and was characterized by the Baroque cultural movement and the beginning of
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Coptic}}} 
Writing system: Coptic alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-1: none
ISO 639-2: cop
ISO 639-3: cop Coptic or Coptic Egyptian^[3] ( Met.
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and

32nd century
←← ↔ →→

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Gumhūriyyat Miṣr al-ʿArabiyyah

Arab Republic of Egypt

Flag Coat of arms
Anthem
Bilady, Bilady, Bilady
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Egyptian Arabic}}} 
Writing system: Arabic alphabet 
Official status
Official language of: none
Regulated by: none
Language codes
ISO 639-1: none
ISO 639-2: arz
ISO 639-3: arz


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Coptic}}} 
Writing system: Coptic alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-1: none
ISO 639-2: cop
ISO 639-3: cop Coptic or Coptic Egyptian^[3] ( Met.
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Muslim conquest of Egypt, Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the Persian Empire under Khosrau II (616 to 629 AD).

It was also religiously alienated.
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A liturgy is the customary public worship done by a specific religious group, according to their particular traditions. In religion, it may refer to, or include, an elaborate formal ritual such as the Catholic Mass, or a daily activity such as the Muslim Salats (see
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