Human anatomy is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human body.^[1] It is subdivided into gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy.^[1] Gross anatomy (also called topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study of anatomical structures that can be seen by unaided vision.^[1] Microscopic anatomy is the study of minute anatomical structures assisted with microscopes, which includes histology (the study of the organization of tissues),^[1] and cytology (the study of cells).

In some of its facets human anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology,^[1] through common roots in evolution; for example, much of the human body maintains the ancient segmental pattern that is present in all vertebrates with basic units being repeated, which is particularly obvious in the vertebral column and in the ribcage, and can be traced from very early embryos.

The human body consists of biological systems, that consist of organs, that consist of tissues, that consist of cells and connective tissue.

The history of anatomy has been characterized, over time, by a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Methods have also advanced dramatically, advancing from examination of animals through dissection of preserved cadavers (dead human bodies) to technologically complex techniques developed in the 20th century.

Study

Generally, medical students, physiotherapists, nurses, paramedics, radiographers, artists, and students of certain biological sciences, learn gross anatomy and microscopic anatomy from anatomical models, skeletons, textbooks, diagrams, photographs, lectures and tutorials. The study of microscopic anatomy (or histology) can be aided by practical experience examining histological preparations (or slides) under a microscope; and in addition, medical students generally also learn gross anatomy with practical experience of dissection and inspection of cadavers (dead human bodies). A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by all medical doctors, especially surgeons, and doctors working in some diagnostic specialities, such as histopathology and radiology.

Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically;^[1] that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. The major anatomy textbook, Gray's Anatomy, has recently been reorganized from a systems format to a regional format,^[2][3] in line with modern teaching methods.

Regional groups

• Head and neck — includes everything above the thoracic inlet
• Upper limb — includes the hand, wrist, forearm, elbow, arm, and shoulder.
• Thorax — the region of the chest from the thoracic inlet to the thoracic diaphragm.
• Abdomen — everything from the thoracic diaphragm to the pelvic brim or to the pelvic inlet.
• The back — the spine and its components, the vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, and intervertebral disks .
• Pelvis and Perineum — the pelvis consists of everything from the pelvic inlet to the pelvic diaphragm. The perineum is the region between the sex organs and the anus.
• Lower limb — everything below the inguinal ligament, including the hip, the thigh, the knee, the leg, the ankle, and the foot.

Major organ systems

• Circulatory system: pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with heart, blood, and blood vessels.
• Digestive system: digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, rectum, and anus.
• Endocrine system: communication within the body using hormones made by endocrine glands such as the hypothalamus, pituitary or pituitary gland, pineal body or pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroids, and adrenals or adrenal glands
• Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails
• Lymphatic system: structures involved in the transfer of lymph between tissues and the blood stream, the lymph and the nodes and vessels that transport it including the Immune system: defending against disease-causing agents with leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus, and spleen
• Muscular system: movement with muscles.
• Nervous system: collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, and nerves
• Reproductive system: the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis.
• Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm.
• Skeletal system: structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons.
• Urinary system: kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte balance and excretion of urine.

Superficial anatomy

Superficial anatomy or surface anatomy is important in human anatomy being the study of anatomical landmarks that can be readily identified from the contours or other reference points on the surface of the body.^[1] With knowledge of superficial anatomy, physicians gauge the position and anatomy of the associated deeper structures.

Common names of well known parts of the human body, from top to bottom:

• Head — Forehead — Jaw — Face — Cheek — Chin
• Neck — Shoulders
• Arm — Elbow — Wrist — Hand — Fingers — Thumb
• Spine — Chest — Ribcage
• Abdomen — Groin
• Hip — Buttocks — Leg — Thigh — Knee — Calf — Heel — Ankle — Foot — Toes
• The eye, ear, nose, mouth, teeth, tongue, throat, adam's apple, breast, penis, scrotum, clitoris, vulva, navel are visible too.

Internal organs

Common names of internal organs (in alphabetical order) :

Adrenals — Appendix — Bladder — Brain — Eyes — Gall bladder — Heart — Intestines — Kidney — Liver — Lungs — Esophagus — Ovaries — Pancreas — Parathyroids — Pituitary — Prostate — Spleen — Stomach — Testicles — Thymus — Thyroid — Veins — Uterus

Brain

Main article: Human brain

Amygdala — Brain stem — Cerebellum — Cerebral cortex — Limbic system — medulla — midbrain — pons

See also

• Anatomy
• Body orifices
• Death — physical consequences of death
• Human
• Human biology
• Human body
• Terms for anatomical location
• List of human anatomical features
• List of human anatomical parts named after people
• Visible Human Project
• List of regions in the human brain
• List of bones of the human skeleton
• List of muscles of the human body
• List of distinct cell types in the adult human body

References

• "Anatomy of the Human Body". 20th edition. 1918. Henry Gray. In public domain.

External links

• Anatomy Dissection videos
• e-Anatomy - Interactive atlas of whole human body cross-sectional anatomy.
• Anatomy Lab - Interactive quizzes, question-of-the-week, and photographs.
• The Anatomy Wiz - An Interactive Cross-Sectional Anatomy Index

Templates

General  •  • [ e] Human topics Behavior  Biology  Anatomy  Communication  Evolution  Genetics  Appearance  Culture  Civilization  Society  Technology  Art  Mind  Nature  Condition  Development  Sexuality  •  • [ e] Human organ systems Cardiovascular system • Digestive system • Endocrine system • Immune system • Integumentary system • Lymphatic system • Muscular system • Nervous system • Reproductive system • Respiratory system • Skeletal system • Urinary system  •  • [ e] Biological tissue Animals Epithelium - Connective - Muscular - Nervous Plants Dermal - Vascular - Ground  •  • [ e] Global structure in Systems, Systems sciences and Systems scientists Categories Systems Biological system Complex system Complex adaptive system Conceptual system Cultural system Dynamical system Economic system Ecosystem Formal system Global Positioning System Human organ systems Information systems Legal system Metric system Nervous system Non-linear system Operating system Physical system Political system Sensory system Social system Solar System System Systems of measurement Fields of theory Chaos theory Complex systems Control theory Cybernetics Holism in science Sociotechnical systems theory Systems biology Systems dynamics Systems ecology Systems engineering Systems theory Systems science Systems scientists Russell L. Ackoff William Ross Ashby Gregory Bateson Ludwig von Bertalanffy Kenneth E. Boulding C. West Churchman Heinz von Foerster Charles Franois Jay Wright Forrester Ralph W. Gerard Debora Hammond George Klir Niklas Luhmann Humberto Maturana Donella Meadows Mihajlo D. Mesarovic Howard T. Odum Talcott Parsons Ilya Prigogine Anatol Rapoport Francisco Varela John N. Warfield Norbert Wiener Skeletal system  •  • [ e] Bone and cartilage Cartilage chondroblast, chondrocyte, perichondrium, types (hyaline, elastic, fibrous), fibrocartilage callus, metaphysis Bone ossification (intramembranous, endochondral, epiphyseal plate), cycle (osteoblast, osteoid, osteocyte, osteoclast), types (cancellous, cortical), regions (epiphysis, diaphysis), structure (osteon/Haversian system, Haversian canals, endosteum, periosteum, Sharpey's fibres, enthesis, lacunae, canaliculi, trabeculae, medullary cavity, bone marrow), shapes (long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid)  •  • [ e] Bones of head and neck: the face maxilla Body of maxilla - Maxillary sinus - surfaces of body Anterior (Incisive fossa, Canine fossa, Infraorbital foramen, Anterior nasal spine) - Infratemporal (Alveolar canals, Maxillary tuberosity) - Orbital (Infraorbital groove, Infraorbital canal) - Nasal (Pterygopalatine canal) - processes Zygomatic process - Frontal process (Agger nasi, Anterior lacrimal crest) - Alveolar process - Palatine process (Incisive foramen, Incisive canals, Foramina of Scarpa, Premaxilla, Anterior nasal spine) lacrimal Posterior lacrimal crest - Lacrimal groove zygomatic Orbital process, Zygomaticofacial foramen - Zygomaticotemporal foramen - Zygomaticorbital foramina palatine Pterygopalatine fossa - Pterygoid fossa - Horizontal plate (Posterior nasal spine) - Perpendicular plate (Pterygopalatine canal, Sphenopalatine foramen, Pyramidal process) processes (Orbital - Sphenoidal) mandible body (Symphysis menti, Mental protuberance, Mental foramen, Mylohyoid line) - Ramus (Mandibular foramen, Mylohyoid groove, Mandibular canal, Angle, Coronoid process, Condyloid process, Mandibular notch) others nasal bone - inferior nasal conchae (ethmoidal process, maxillary process) - vomer  •  • [ e] Bones of head and neck: the cranium Occipital Foramen magnum - Squama occipitalis (Inion - Nuchal lines - Planum occipitale - Planum nuchale - Cruciform eminence - Internal occipital protuberance - Sagittal sulcus - Internal occipital crest) Lateral parts (Occipital condyle - Hypoglossal canal - Condyloid fossa - Condylar canal - Jugular process - Jugular tubercle) - Basilar part (Pharyngeal tubercle) Parietal Parietal eminence - Temporal line - Parietal foramen Frontal Squama frontalis (Frontal suture - Frontal eminence - Superciliary arches - Glabella - Supraorbital foramen - Zygomatic process - Sagittal sulcus - Frontal crest - Foramen cecum) - Pars orbitalis (Ethmoidal notch - Lacrimal fossa - Trochlear fovea - Posterior ethmoidal foramen - Anterior ethmoidal foramen - Frontal sinus - Frontonasal duct) Temporal Squama temporalis (Articular tubercle - Suprameatal triangle - Mandibular fossa - Petrotympanic fissure) - Mastoid portion (Mastoid foramen - Mastoid process - Mastoid notch - Occipital groove - Sigmoid sulcus - Mastoid antrum) - Petrous portion (Facial canal - Hiatus of the facial canal - Internal auditory meatus - Subarcuate fossa - Carotid canal - Aqueduct of cochlea - Jugular fossa - Inferior tympanic canaliculus - Mastoid canaliculus - Styloid process - Stylomastoid foramen - Petrosquamous suture) - Tympanic part (Suprameatal spine) - Zygomatic process Sphenoid Body Superior surface (Ethmoidal spine, Chiasmatic groove, Optic foramen, Sella turcica, Fossa hypophyseos, Middle clinoid process, Dorsum sellae, Posterior clinoid processes, Petrosal process, Clivus) - Lateral surface (Carotid groove - Sphenoidal lingula) - Anterior surface (Sphenoidal sinuses) - Great wings (Spine, Foramen rotundum, Foramen ovale, Foramen Vesalii, Foramen spinosum, Infratemporal crest, Sulcus tubae auditivae) - Small wings (Superior orbital fissure, Anterior clinoid process, Optic foramen) - Pterygoid processes (Pterygoid fossa, Scaphoid fossa, Lateral pterygoid plate, Medial pterygoid plate, Pterygoid canal, Pterygoid hamulus) - Sphenoidal conchae Ethmoid Cribriform plate (Crista galli) - Perpendicular plate - Labyrinth (Ethmoid sinus) - Lateral surface Lamina papyracea - Uncinate process - Medial surface Middle nasal concha - Superior meatus - Superior nasal concha - Middle meatus  •  • [ e] Bones of head and neck: cranial sutures, fontanelles, and related regions Cranial sutures Coronal - Lambdoid - Occipitomastoid - Sphenofrontal - Sphenoparietal - Sphenosquamosal - Sphenozygomatic -Squamosal - Zygomaticotemporal - Zygomaticofrontal - Frontal/Metopic - Sagittal - Frontoethmoidal - Petrosquamous - Sphenoethmoidal - Sphenopetrosal Fontanelles Anterior fontanelle - Posterior fontanelle Foramina of multiple bones Inferior orbital fissure - Foramen lacerum - Jugular foramen - Nasolacrimal canal Fossae Anterior cranial fossa - Middle cranial fossa - Posterior cranial fossa - Cranial cavity Other compound structures Asterion - Nasion - Pterion - Dacryon - Zygomatic arch - Calvaria - Temporal fossa - Infratemporal fossa - Stephanion - Pterygomaxillary fissure - Pterygopalatine fossa  •  • [ e] Bones of upper limbs Pectoral girdle, clavicle conoid tubercle - trapezoid line - costal tuberosity - subclavian groove Scapula spine of scapula - suprascapular notch - acromion - glenoid cavity - glenoidal labrum - coracoid process - fossae (subscapular, supraspinatous, infraspinatous) - borders (superior, lateral/axillary, medial/vertebral) - angles (superior, inferior, lateral) - tubercles (infraglenoid, supraglenoid) Humerus upper extremity - necks (anatomical, surgical) - tubercles (greater, lesser) - intertubercular groove - body - radial sulcus - deltoid tuberosity lower extremity - capitulum - trochlea - epicondyles (lateral, medial) - supracondylar ridges (lateral, medial) - fossae (radial, coronoid, olecranon) Forearm ulna: upper extremity (olecranon, coronoid process, tuberosity, radial notch, semilunar notch) - body of ulna - lower extremity (styloid process) radius: upper extremity (tuberosity) - body - lower extremity (ulnar notch, styloid process) Hand carpus: scaphoid - lunate - triquetral - pisiform - trapezium - trapezoid - capitate - hamate (hamulus) - metacarpus: 1st metacarpal - 2nd - 3rd - 4th - 5th - phalanges of the hand Spine [ edit] general structures: body of vertebra, vertebral arch (pedicle, lamina, vertebral notch), foramina (vertebral, intervertebral), processes (transverse, articular, spinous) cervical vertebrae: C1 (anterior arch, posterior arch, lateral mass), C2 (dens), C7, posterior tubercle, foramen transversarium thoracic vertebrae: costal facets (superior, inferior, transverse) lumbar vertebrae: accessory process, mammillary process sacrum/coccyx: pelvic surface (anterior sacral foramina, dorsal surface (posterior sacral foramina, median sacral crest, medial sacral crest, lateral sacral crest), lateral surface, base, sacral hiatus  •  • [ e] Bones of lower limbs femur head of femur (fovea capitis femoris) - neck of femur - greater trochanter - trochanteric fossa - lesser trochanter - tubercle of the femur - intertrochanteric line - intertrochanteric crest - linea quadrata - body of femur (linea aspera, third trochanter, pectineal line, adductor tubercle) - lower extremity of femur (lateral condyle, medial condyle, lateral epicondyle, medial epicondyle, patellar surface) tibia upper extremity - medial condyle - lateral condyle - intercondyloid eminence - tuberosity of the tibia - posterior intercondyloid fossa - anterior intercondyloid fossa body of tibia - soleal line - lower extremity - medial malleolus fibula head of fibula - body of fibula - lateral malleolus tarsus calcaneus (sustentaculum tali, trochlear process) - talus - cuboid - medial cuneiform - intermediate - lateral metatarsus 1st metatarsal - 2nd - 3rd - 4th - 5th other patella - phalanges of the foot  •  • [ e] Bones of pelvis/pelvic cavity General sacrum, coccyx, hip bone Ilium Arcuate line - Wing - gluteal lines (Posterior, Anterior, Inferior) - Fossa - Tuberosity - Crest - iliac spines (Anterior superior - Anterior inferior - Posterior superior - Posterior inferior) Ischium Body (Ischial spine, Lesser sciatic notch) - Superior ramus (Tuberosity of the ischium) - Inferior ramus Pubis Superior ramus (Pubic tubercle, Pubic crest, Obturator crest) - Inferior ramus (Pectineal line) Compound Obturator foramen - Acetabulum - Acetabular notch - Greater sciatic notch - Iliopectineal eminence - Ischiopubic ramus - Pubic arch - Lesser pelvis (Pelvic inlet, Pelvic brim, Pelvic outlet) - Greater pelvis  •  • [ e] Vertebral column and spinal cord Vertebrae cervical: C1 (Atlas) • C2 (Axis) • C3 • C4 • C5 • C6 • C7 (Vertebra prominens) thoracic: T1 • T2 • T3 • T4 • T5 • T6 • T7 • T8 • T9 • T10 • T11 • T12 lumbar: L1 • L2 • L3 • L4 • L5 sacral: S1 • S2 • S3 • S4 • S5 coccygeal: Co1 • Co2 • Co3 • (Co4) • (Co5) Spinal nerves cervical: C1 • C2 • C3 • C4 • C5 • C6 • C7 • C8 thoracic: T1 • T2 • T3 • T4 • T5 • T6 • T7 • T8 • T9 • T10 • T11 • T12 lumbar: L1 • L2 • L3 • L4 • L5 sacral: S1 • S2 • S3 • S4 • S5 coccygeal: Co  •  • [ e] Joints and ligaments of Head and Neck Atlanto-axial anterior atlantoaxial ligament - posterior atlantoaxial ligament - cruciform ligament of atlas (transverse ligament of the atlas) Atlanto-occipital anterior atlantoccipital membrane - posterior atlantoccipital membrane - tectorial membrane - alar ligament - ligament of apex dentis Temporomandibular capsule - temporomandibular ligament - sphenomandibular ligament - stylomandibular ligament - articular disk  •  • [ e] Joints and ligaments of upper limbs Shoulder sternoclavicular: anterior sternoclavicular - posterior sternoclavicular - interclavicular - costoclavicular acromioclavicular: acromioclavicular - coracoclavicular (trapezoid, conoid) - coracoacromial - superior transverse scapular - inferior transverse of scapula glenohumeral: coracohumeral - glenohumeral (superior, middle, and inferior) - transverse humeral - glenoid labrum Elbow proximal radioulnar, humeroradial, humeroulnar: ulnar collateral - radial collateral - annular - oblique cord Forearm distal radioulnar: volar radioulnar - dorsal radioulnar wrist/radiocarpal: palmar radiocarpal - dorsal radiocarpal - ulnar collateral - radial collateral Hand intercarpal, midcarpal: pisohamate ligament - pisometacarpal ligament carpometacarpal: dorsal carpometacarpal - palmar carpometacarpal intermetacarpal: deep transverse metacarpal - superficial transverse metacarpal metacarpophalangeal, interphalangeal  •  • [ e] Joints and ligaments of torso Vertebral column articulations of vertebral bodies: anterior longitudinal ligament - posterior longitudinal ligament - intervertebral disc articulations of vertebral arches : ligamenta flava - supraspinous ligament (nuchal ligament) - interspinal ligament - intertransverse ligament zygapophysial joint Costovertebral articulation of head of rib: radiate ligament - interarticular ligament costotransverse Sternocostal interarticular sternocostal ligament - radiate sternocostal ligaments - costoxiphoid ligaments interchondral, costochondral Pelvis articulation of the vertebral column with the pelvis: iliolumbar ligament sacroiliac: anterior sacroiliac ligament - posterior sacroiliac ligament - interosseous sacroiliac ligament ligaments connecting the sacrum and ischium: sacrotuberous ligament - sacrospinous ligament sacrococcygeal symphysis: anterior sacrococcygeal ligament - posterior sacrococcygeal ligament pubic symphysis: superior pubic ligament - inferior pubic ligament  •  • [ e] Joints and ligaments of lower limbs Coxal/hip iliofemoral - pubofemoral - ischiofemoral - head of femur - transverse acetabular Knee-joint patellar - popliteal (oblique, arcuate) - collateral (medial/tibial, lateral/fibular) - cruciate (anterior, posterior) - menisci (medial, lateral) Tibiofibular Superior tibiofibular: anterior of the head of the fibula - posterior of the head of the fibula Inferior tibiofibular: anterior of the lateral malleolus - posterior of the lateral malleolus Talocrural/ankle deltoid - external lateral of the ankle-joint (anterior talofibular, posterior talofibular, calcaneofibular) Foot - intertarsal Subtalar/talocalcaneal: anterior talocalcaneal - posterior talocalcaneal - lateral talocalcaneal - medial talocalcaneal - interosseous talocalcaneal Talocalcaneonavicular: dorsal talonavicular Calcaneocuboid: dorsal calcaneocuboid - bifurcated - long plantar - plantar calcaneocuboid Transverse tarsal: plantar calcaneonavicular/spring Foot - other Cuneonavicular, Cuboideonavicular, Intercuneiform and cuneocuboid, Tarsometatarsal/Lisfranc, Intermetatarsal, Metatarsophalangeal, Interphalangeal Arches of the foot (Longitudinal, Transverse) Muscular system  •  • [ e] Muscular system Topics Muscular tissue • Muscle contraction • Muscles of the human body Types of muscles Cardiac muscle • Skeletal muscle • Smooth muscle  •  • [ e] Muscles of head and neck: the head scalp/eyelid occipitofrontalis (occipitalis, frontalis) - orbicularis oculi - corrugator supercilii - depressor supercilii extraocular levator palpebrae superioris - superior tarsal - rectus (superior, inferior, medial, lateral) - oblique (superior, inferior) - intraocular: ciliary - iris dilator - iris sphincter ear auriculares - temporoparietalis - stapedius - tensor tympani nose procerus - nasalis (dilatator naris) - depressor septi nasi - levator labii superioris alaeque nasi mouth levator anguli oris/depressor anguli oris - levator labii superioris/depressor labii inferioris - zygomaticus (major, minor) - mentalis - buccinator - orbicularis oris - risorius mastication masseter - temporalis - pterygoid (lateral, medial) tongue extrinsic (genioglossus, hyoglossus, chondroglossus, styloglossus) - intrinsic (superior longitudinal, inferior longitudinal, transversus, verticalis) soft palate levator veli palatini - tensor veli palatini - musculus uvulae - palatoglossus - palatopharyngeus pharynx pharyngeal constrictor (inferior, middle, superior) - stylopharyngeus - salpingopharyngeus larynx cricothyroid - cricoarytenoid (posterior, lateral) - arytenoid - thyroarytenoid  •  • [ e] Muscles of head and neck: the neck CERVICAL platysma - sternocleidomastoid SUPRAHYOID digastric - stylohyoid - mylohyoid - geniohyoid INFRAHYOID/STRAP sternohyoid - sternothyroid - thyrohyoid - omohyoid VERTEBRAL — ANTERIOR longus colli - longus capitis - rectus capitis anterior - rectus capitis lateralis LATERAL scalene (anterior - medius - posterior)  •  • [ e] Muscles of torso BACK splenius: (capitis - cervicis) - erector spinae (iliocostalis - longissimus - spinalis) - latissimus dorsi transversospinales: (semispinalis dorsi - semispinalis cervicis - semispinalis capitis - multifidus - rotatores) - interspinales - intertransversarii SUBOCCIPITAL rectus capitis posterior (major, minor) - obliquus capitis (inferior, superior) CHEST intercostales (external, internal, innermost) - subcostales - transversus thoracis - levatores costarum - serratus posterior (inferior, superior) - diaphragm ABDOMEN obliques (external, internal) - transversus abdominis - rectus abdominis - pyramidalis - cremaster - quadratus lumborum PELVIS levator ani (iliococcygeus, pubococcygeus, puborectalis) - coccygeus PERINEUM sphincter ani (externus, internus) - superficial perineal pouch (transversus perinei superficialis - bulbospongiosus - ischiocavernosus) - deep perineal pouch (transversus perinei profundus, sphincter urethrae membranaceae)  •  • [ e] Muscles of upper limbs VERTEBRAL COLUMN trapezius - latissimus dorsi - rhomboid major - rhomboid minor - levator scapulae THORACIC WALLS pectoralis major - pectoralis minor - subclavius - serratus anterior SHOULDER deltoid - rotator cuff (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis) - teres major ARM anterior compartment: coracobrachialis - biceps brachii - brachialis posterior compartment: triceps brachii - anconeus FOREARM anterior compartment: super. - pronator teres - palmaris longus - flexor carpi radialis - flexor carpi ulnaris - flexor digitorum superficialis - deep - pronator quadratus - flexor digitorum profundus - flexor pollicis longus posterior compartment: super. - mobile wad (brachioradialis, extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis) - extensor digitorum, - extensor digiti minimi - extensor carpi ulnaris - deep - supinator - anatomical snuff box (abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, extensor pollicis longus) - extensor indicis HAND lateral volar - thenar (opponens pollicis, flexor pollicis brevis, abductor pollicis brevis, adductor pollicis) medial volar - palmaris brevis - hypothenar (abductor minimi digiti, flexor digiti minimi brevis, opponens digiti minimi) intermediate - lumbrical - dorsal interossei - palmar interossei  •  • [ e] Muscles of lower limbs ILIAC REGION/ILIOPSOAS psoas major - psoas minor - iliacus BUTTOCKS gluteals: (maximus, medius, minimus) - tensor fasciae latae lateral rotator group: piriformis - obturator externus - obturator internus - inferior gemellus - superior gemellus - quadratus femoris THIGH anterior compartment: sartorius - quadriceps (rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis) - articularis genu medial compartment/adductor: gracilis - pectineus - adductor brevis - adductor longus - adductor magnus posterior compartment/hamstring: biceps femoris - semitendinosus, semimembranosus LEG anterior compartment: tibialis anterior - extensor hallucis longus - extensor digitorum longus - fibularis tertius posterior compartment: superficial - calf/triceps surae (gastrocnemius, soleus) - plantaris deep - popliteus - tarsal tunnel (flexor hallucis longus - flexor digitorum longus - tibialis posterior) lateral compartment: fibularis muscles (longus - brevis) FOOT dorsal - extensor digitorum brevis - extensor hallucis brevis plantar first layer - abductor hallucis - flexor digitorum brevis - abductor digiti minimi plantar second layer - quadratus plantae - lumbrical muscle plantar third layer - flexor hallucis brevis - adductor hallucis - flexor digiti minimi brevis plantar fourth layer - dorsal interossei - plantar interossei Cardiovascular system  •  • [ e] Cardiovascular system Blood  |  Heart → Aorta → Arteries → Arterioles → Capillaries → Venules → Veins → Vena cava → Heart → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary vein  •  • [ e] Anatomy of torso, cardiovascular system: heart Structures atria (interatrial septum, musculi pectinati) • ventricles (interventricular septum, trabeculae carneae, chordae tendinae, papillary muscle) • valves • cusps Regions base • apex • grooves (coronary/atrioventricular, interatrial, anterior interventricula, posterior interventricular) • surfaces (sternocostal, diaphragmatic) • borders (right, left) Right heart (vena cavae, coronary sinus) → right atrium (auricle, fossa ovalis, limbus of fossa ovalis, crista terminalis, valve of the inferior vena cava, valve of the coronary sinus) → tricuspid valve → right ventricle (conus arteriosus, moderator band/septomarginal trabecula)  → pulmonary valve → (pulmonary artery and pulmonary circulation) Left heart (pulmonary veins) → left atrium (auricle) → mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic valve (aortic sinus) → (aorta and systemic circulation) Layers pericardium  (sinus) • epicardium • myocardium • endocardium • cardiac skeleton (fibrous trigone, fibrous rings) Conduction system Cardiac pacemaker • SA node • AV node• bundle of His • Purkinje fibers  •  • [ e] Arteries of head and neck CC, EC: Anterior superior thyroid (superior laryngeal) - lingual (sublingual) facial: cervical branches (ascending palatine - tonsillar - submental - glandular) - facial branches (inferior labial - superior labial - lateral nasal - angular) EC: Posterior and ascending occipital - posterior auricular (stylomastoid) - ascending pharyngeal (meningeal branches) EC: Terminal, superficial temporal transverse facial - middle temporal (zygomaticorbital) - anterior auricular - frontal - parietal EC: Terminal, maxillary 1st part: anterior tympanic - deep auricular - middle meningeal (superior tympanic) - accessory meningeal - inferior alveolar (mylohyoid) 2nd part: deep temporal - pterygoid branches - masseteric - buccal 3rd part: posterior superior alveolar - infraorbital (anterior superior alveolar) - descending palatine - artery of the pterygoid canal - sphenopalatine CC, IC: portions #1 and 2 cervical portion - petrous portion (Vidian, caroticotympanic) IC: cavernous portion/ophthalmic orbital group: lacrimal - supraorbital - posterior ethmoidal - anterior ethmoidal - medial palpebral - supratrochlear - dorsal nasal ocular group: central retinal - ciliary (short posterior, long posterior, anterior) - superior hypophysial - inferior hypophyseal IC: cerebral portion ACA - anterior communicating - MCA (anterolateral central) - posterior communicating - anterior choroidal - circle of Willis SUBCLAVIAN: vertebral meningeal branches - posterior spinal - anterior spinal - PICA - basilar (pontine - labyrinthine - AICA - SCA - PCA) SUBCLAVIAN: thyrocervical inferior thyroid (inferior laryngeal, tracheal, esophageal, ascending cervical) - suprascapular - transverse cervical - dorsal scapular  •  • [ e] Arteries of upper limbs Axillary scapular anastomosis - 1st part superior thoracic - 2nd part thoracoacromial - lateral thoracic - 3rd part subscapular (circumflex scapular, thoracodorsal) - anterior humeral circumflex - posterior humeral circumflex Brachial profunda brachii (radial collateral, medial collateral) - superior ulnar collateral - inferior ulnar collateral Radial forearm: radial recurrent - palmar carpal branch - superficial palmar branch wrist: dorsal carpal branch (dorsal carpal arch, dorsal metacarpal, dorsal digital) hand: princeps pollicis - radial of index finger - deep palmar arch (palmar metacarpal) Ulnar forearm: anterior ulnar recurrent - posterior ulnar recurrent - common interosseous (anterior, posterior, recurrent) wrist: palmar carpal branch - dorsal carpal branch hand: superficial palmar arch (common palmar digital, proper palmar digital) - deep palmar branch - palmar carpal arch  •  • [ e] Arteries of torso - abdomen ABDOMINAL AORTA: Anterior celiac left gastric – splenic: pancreatic branches (arteria pancreatica magna) – short gastric – left gastro-omental – common hepatic: proper hepatic (cystic), right gastric, gastroduodenal (right gastro-omental, superior pancreaticoduodenal) superior mesenteric inferior pancreaticoduodenal – intestinal – ileocolic (appendicular) – right colic – middle colic inferior mesenteric left colic – sigmoid – superior rectal – marginal ABDOMINAL AORTA: Posterior Visceral: middle suprarenal – renal (inferior suprarenal) – testicular/ovarian Parietal: inferior phrenic (superior suprarenal) – lumbar – median sacral Terminal branches: common iliac INTERNAL ILIAC: Anterior umbilical (superior vesical, to ductus deferens) – inferior vesical – middle rectal – uterine (azygos of the vagina) – vaginal – obturator (anterior branch, posterior branch) – internal pudendal (inferior rectal, perineal, artery of the urethral bulb, urethral, deep artery of the penis, dorsal artery of the penis) – inferior gluteal (accompanying of ischiadic nerve, crucial anastomosis) INTERNAL ILIAC: Posterior iliolumbar – lateral sacral – superior gluteal EXTERNAL ILIAC inferior epigastric (cremasteric) – deep circumflex iliac  •  • [ e] Arteries of lower limbs EI: Femoral superficial epigastric - superficial iliac circumflex - superficial external pudendal - deep external pudendal - profunda femoris (lateral circumflex femoral - medial circumflex femoral - perforating) - descending genicular Popliteal anterior tibial - sural - superior genicular (medial, lateral) - middle genicular - inferior genicular (medial, lateral) Anterior Tibial dorsalis pedis - posterior tibial recurrent - anterior tibial recurrent - anterior medial malleolar - anterior lateral malleolar Dorsalis Pedis lateral tarsal - medial tarsal - arcuate - dorsal metatarsal - first dorsal metatarsal - deep plantar Posterior Tibial circumflex fibular - fibular - medial plantar - lateral plantar - plantar arch - plantar metatarsal Venous system  •  • [ e] Veins of upper limbs superficial Dorsal digital • Dorsal metacarpal • Dorsal network • Palmar digital • Intercapitular • Cephalic • Median cubital • Accessory cephalic • Basilic • Median antebrachial deep Palmar metacarpal • Superficial palmar arch • Deep palmar arch • Radial • Ulnar • Brachial • Axillary Veins [ edit] superficial - deep - venae comitantes - venous sinuses - pulmonary | (Gray's s164-Gray's s165) heart: coronary sinus - great cardiac - left marginal - small cardiac - right marginal - middle cardiac - posterior of the left ventricle - oblique of the left atrium - anterior cardiac | (Gray's s166) exterior of the head and face: frontal - supraorbital - angular - anterior facial - common facial - deep facial - superficial temporal - posterior facial - transverse facial - pterygoid - internal maxillary - posterior auricular - occipital | (Gray's s167) veins of the neck: external jugular - sinus - posterior external jugular - anterior jugular - internal jugular - inferior petrosal sinus - lingual - ranine - pharyngeal - superior thyroid - middle thyroid - vertebral - deep cervical | (Gray's s168) diploic/veins of the brain: cerebral - superior cerebral - middle cerebral - inferior cerebral - basal - internal cerebral - great cerebral - cerebellar | (Gray's s169-Gray's s170) sinuses of the dura mater: superior sagittal - inferior sagittal - straight - transverse - sigmoid - petrosquamous - occipital - confluence - cavernous | (Gray's s171) ophthalmic: superior ophthalmic - nasofrontal - inferior ophthalmic - intercavernous sinuses - superior petrosal sinus - basilar - emissary | (Gray's s171) upper extremity: superficial (cephalic - median cubital - accessory cephalic - basilic - median antebrachial) - deep (radial - ulnar - brachial - axillary) | (Gray's s172) thorax: subclavian - brachiocephalic - internal thoracic - superior phrenic - inferior thyroid - intercostal (supreme - superior - posterior) - superior vena cava - azygos - hemiazygos - accessory hemiazygos - bronchial | (Gray's s172) vertebral column: external vertebral venous plexuses - internal vertebral venous plexuses - basivertebral - intervertebral - of the medulla spinalis | (Gray's s172) lower extremity: common digital - great saphenous - thoracoepigastric - small saphenous - plantar digital - posterior tibial - peroneal - anterior tibial - popliteal - femoral - profunda femoris | (Gray's s173) abdomen and pelvis: external iliac - inferior epigastric - internal iliac - superior gluteal - inferior gluteal - internal pudendal - hemorrhoidal - pudendal - dorsal of the penis - common iliac - inferior vena cava - spermatic - ovarian - renal - suprarenal - inferior phrenic - hepatic | (Gray's s173) portal system: sinusoids - portal - splenic - short gastric - left gastroepiploic - pancreatic - inferior mesenteric - superior rectal - superior mesenteric - right gastroepiploic - pancreaticoduodenal | (Gray's s174) fetal: ductus venosus - umbilical | (Gray's s139)  •  • [ e] Veins of lower limbs thigh femoral • profunda femoris • popliteal deep leg fibular • anterior tibial • posterior tibial superficial leg small saphenous • great saphenous (extends to thigh) foot dorsal arch • dorsal metatarsal • dorsal digital • plantar arch • plantar metatarsal • common digital • plantar digital Nervous system  •  • [ e] Nervous system Central nervous system (Brain, Spinal cord) • Peripheral nervous system • Somatic nervous system • Autonomic nervous system (Sympathetic, Parasympathetic) • Enteric nervous system • Sensory system  •  • [ e] Brain: rhombencephalon (hindbrain) Myelencephalon/medulla anterior/ventral: Arcuate nucleus of medulla • Pyramid (Decussation) • Olivary body • Inferior olivary nucleus • Anterior median fissure • Ventral respiratory group posterior/dorsal: VII,IX,X: Solitary/tract • XII, X: Dorsal • IX,X,XI: Ambiguus • IX: Inferior salivatory nucleus • Gracile nucleus/Cuneate nucleus/Accessory cuneate nucleus • Area postrema • Posterior median sulcus • Dorsal respiratory group raphe/reticular: Sensory decussation • Reticular formation (Gigantocellular nucleus, Parvocellular reticular nucleus, Ventral reticular nucleus, Lateral reticular nucleus, Paramedian reticular nucleus) • Raphe nuclei (Obscurus, Magnus, Pallidus) tracts: Corticospinal tract (Lateral, Anterior) • Inferior cerebellar peduncle • Olivocerebellar tract • Spinocerebellar (Dorsal, Ventral) • Spinothalamic tract • PCML (Posterior external arcuate fibers, Internal arcuate fibers, Medial lemniscus) • Extrapyramidal (Rubrospinal tract, Vestibulospinal tract, Tectospinal tract) Metencephalon/pons anterior/ventral: Superior olivary nucleus • Basis pontis (Pontine nuclei, Middle cerebellar peduncles) posterior/dorsal: Pontine tegmentum (Trapezoid body, Superior medullary velum, Locus ceruleus, MLF, Vestibulocerebellar tract, V Principal Spinal & Motor, VI, VII, VII: Superior salivary nucleus) • VIII-c (Dorsal, Anterior)/VIII-v (Lateral, Superior, Medial, Inferior) raphe/reticular: Reticular formation (Caudal pontine reticular nucleus, Oral pontine reticular nucleus, Tegmental pontine reticular nucleus, Paramedian pontine reticular formation) • Median raphe nucleus Apneustic center • Pneumotaxic center Metencephalon/cerebellum Vermis • Flocculus • Arbor vitae • Cerebellar tonsil • Inferior medullary velum Molecular layer (Stellate cell, Basket cell, Parallel fiber) • Purkinje cell layer (Purkinje cell) • Granule cell layer (Golgi cell) • Mossy fibers • Climbing fiber Deep cerebellar nuclei (Dentate, Emboliform, Globose, Fastigial) Fourth ventricle apertures (Median, Lateral) • Rhomboid fossa (Vagal trigone, Hypoglossal trigone, Obex, Sulcus limitans, Facial colliculus, Medial eminence) • Lateral recess  •  • [ e] Brain: mesencephalon (midbrain) Tectum Corpora quadrigemina (Inferior colliculi, Superior colliculi) • Subcommissural organ • Pretectum Peduncle tegmentum Periaqueductal gray (Cerebral aqueduct, Dorsal raphe nucleus) • Ventral tegmentum • Pedunculopontine nucleus • Red nucleus • MLF (riMLF)  • lemnisci (Medial, Lateral) • cranial nuclei (III: Oculomotor nucleus, III: Edinger-Westphal nucleus, IV: Trochlear nucleus, V: Mesencephalic) Peduncle base Substantia nigra • Cerebral crus (Corticospinal tract, Corticobulbar tract, Corticopontine tract/Frontopontine fibers/Temporopontine fibers)  •  • [ e] Brain: diencephalon Epithalamus Pineal body • Habenula (Habenular nuclei) Hypothalamus anterior: Anterior hypothalamic nucleus • Paraventricular nucleus • Preoptic area • Supraoptic nucleus • Suprachiasmatic nucleus intermediate/middle/tuberal/pituitary: infundibulum • median eminence • arcuate nucleus • Ventromedial nucleus • Dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus • Tuber cinereum, Pituitary gland (Anterior pituitary, Posterior pituitary) posterior/lateral: posterior nucleus • Mammillary body • Lateral nucleus other: Medial forebrain bundle Subthalamus Subthalamic nucleus • Zona incerta • Thalamic fasciculus • Lenticular fasciculus Thalamus/nuclei Ventral nuclear group (VA/VL, VP/VPM/VPL) • MD • AN • LNG (Pulvinar) • Intralaminar nucleus (Centromedian nucleus) • Midline nuclear group • Thalamic reticular nucleus • Metathalamus (MG, LG) • Interthalamic adhesion Third ventricle recesses: (Optic recess, Infundibular recess, Suprapineal recess, Pineal recess) • Hypothalamic sulcus Other Interventricular foramina • Optic chiasm • Subfornical organ • Mammillothalamic tract  •  • [ e] Brain: telencephalon (cerebrum, cerebral cortex, cerebral hemispheres) Primary sulci/fissures Medial longitudinal, Lateral, Central, Parietoccipital, Calcarine, Cingulate, Callosal Collateral fissure Frontal lobe Precentral gyrus (Primary motor cortex, 4), Precentral sulcus, Superior frontal gyrus/Frontal eye fields (6, 8, 9), Middle frontal gyrus (46), Inferior frontal gyrus (44-Pars opercularis, 45-Pars triangularis), Orbitofrontal cortex (10, 11, 12, 47) Parietal lobe Somatosensory cortex (Primary (1, 2, 3, 43), Secondary (5)), Precuneus (7m), Parietal lobules (Superior (7l), Inferior (40)), Angular gyrus (39), Intraparietal sulcus, Marginal sulcus Occipital lobe Primary visual cortex (17), Cuneus, Lingual gyrus, 18, 19 - Lateral occipital sulcus Temporal lobe Primary auditory cortex (41, 42), Superior temporal gyrus (38, 22), Middle temporal gyrus (21), Inferior temporal gyrus (20), Fusiform gyrus (37) Medial temporal lobe (Amygdala, Hippocampus, Parahippocampal gyrus (27, 28, 34, 35, 36) Cingulate cortex/gyrus Subgenual area (25), anterior cingulate (24, 32, 33), Posterior cingulate (23, 31), Retrosplenial cortex (26, 29, 30), Supracallosal gyrus white matter tracts Corpus callosum (Splenium, Genu, Rostrum, Tapetum), Septum pellucidum, Ependyma, Internal capsule, Corona radiata, External capsule, Olfactory tract, Fornix (Commissure of fornix), Anterior commissure, Posterior commissure Terminal stria Basal ganglia Striatum (Putamen,Caudate nucleus, Nucleus accumbens), Globus pallidus, Claustrum, Subthalamic nucleus, Substantia nigra Other Insular cortex Olfactory bulb, Anterior olfactory nucleus Septal nuclei Basal optic nucleus of Meynert Some categorizations are approximations, and some Brodmann areas span gyri.  •  • [ e] Human brain - Limbic system Amygdala • Cingulate gyrus • Fornicate gyrus • Hippocampus • Hypothalamus • Mammillary body • Nucleus accumbens • Olfactory System •Orbitofrontal cortex • Parahippocampal gyrus  •  • [ e] Nerves - autonomic nervous system (sympathetic nervous system/ganglion and parasympathetic nervous system/ganglion) Head/cranial Ciliary ganglion (Short ciliary nerves) - Pterygopalatine ganglion (Nerve of pterygoid canal) - Submandibular ganglion - Otic ganglion Neck/cervical cervical ganglia: (Superior, Middle, Inferior) - Stellate ganglion Cavernous plexus - Internal carotid Chest/thorax paravertebral: Thoracic ganglia Cardiac plexus - Thoracic aortic plexus Thoracic splanchnic nerves - cardiac nerves (Superior, Middle, Inferior) Abdomen/Lumbar paravertebral: Lumbar ganglia Celiac plexus - Celiac ganglia (Hepatic, Splenic, Pancreatic) - Aorticorenal (Abdominal aortic plexus, Renal/Suprarenal) - Superior mesenteric (Gastric) Inferior mesenteric (Spermatic, Ovarian) hypogastric: Superior hypogastric - Inferior hypogastric (Vesical, Prostatic, Uterovaginal) enteric nervous system: Meissner's plexus • Auerbach's plexus Lumbar splanchnic nerves Pelvis/sacral paravertebral: Sacral ganglia Ganglion impar Pelvic splanchnic nerves - Sacral splanchnic nerves All Sympathetic trunks - Ganglia of sympathetic trunk - Prevertebral ganglia - Rami communicans (White, Gray)  •  • [ e] Nerves of head and neck: the cranial nerves I-IV olfactory • optic • oculomotor (superior branch, inferior branch) • trochlear V: trigeminal trigeminal ganglion • ophthalmic • maxillary • mandibular VI: abducens no significant branches VII: facial nervus intermedius • geniculate • inside facial canal (greater petrosal, nerve to the stapedius, chorda tympani) • at exit from stylomastoid foramen (posterior auricular, digastric • stylohyoid) • on face (temporal, zygomatic, buccal, mandibular, cervical) VIII: vestibulocochlear cochlear (striae medullares, lateral lemniscus) • vestibular (Scarpa's ganglion) IX: glossopharyngeal nucleus ambiguus • ganglia (superior, petrous) • tympanic (tympanic plexus, lesser petrosal) • carotid sinus • pharyngeal branches • pharyngeal plexus X: vagus ganglia (jugular, nodose) • Alderman's nerve • in the neck (pharyngeal branch, superior laryngeal ext and int, recurrent laryngeal) • in the thorax (pulmonary branches, esophageal plexus) • in the abdomen (gastric plexuses, celiac plexus, gastric plexus) XI-XII accessory • hypoglossal  •  • [ e] Anatomy of torso (primarily): the spinal cord Spinal nerve Dorsal (Root, Ganglion, Ramus) • Ventral (Root, Ramus) • Sympathetic trunk • rami communicantes (Gray, White) Gray matter/Rexed laminae Posterior horn (Column of Clarke, Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando, Nucleus proprius) • Lateral horn • Anterior horn • Central canal/Substantia gelatinosa centralis White matter: somatic/ascending (blue) Posterior/PCML: Gracilis • Cuneatus Lateral: Spinocerebellar (Dorsal, Ventral) • Spinothalamic (Lateral, Anterior) • Spinotectal • Posterolateral (Lissauer) White matter: motor/descending (red) Lateral: Corticospinal (Lateral) • Ep (Rubrospinal, Olivospinal) Anterior: Corticospinal (Anterior) • Ep (Vestibulospinal, Tectospinal, Reticulospinal) Layers Epidural space • Dura mater • Subdural space • Arachnoid mater • Subarachnoid space • Pia mater Other structures Denticulate ligaments • Conus medullaris • Cauda equina • Filum terminale • Cervical enlargement • Lumbar enlargement • Anterior median fissure  •  • [ e] Nerves: spinal nerves Cervical anterior (Cervical plexus, Brachial plexus) - posterior (Posterior branches of cervical nerves, Suboccipital, Greater occipital, Third occipital) Thoracic anterior (Intercostal, Intercostobrachial - T2, Thoraco-abdominal nerves - T7-T11, Subcostal - T12) - posterior (Posterior branches of thoracic nerves) Lumbar anterior (Lumbar plexus, Lumbosacral trunk) - posterior (Posterior branches of the lumbar nerves, Superior cluneal nerves) Sacral anterior (Sacral plexus) - posterior (Posterior branches of sacral nerves, Medial cluneal nerves) Coccygeal anterior (Coccygeal plexus) - posterior (Posterior branch of coccygeal nerve)  •  • [ e] Nerves of head and neck: the cervical plexus superficial lesser occipital • greater auricular • transverse cervical • supraclavicular deep ansa cervicalis • phrenic  •  • [ e] Nerves of upper limbs (primarily): the brachial plexus Supraclavicular dorsal scapular • suprascapular • to the subclavius • long thoracic Infraclavicular: lateral cord musculocutaneous (lateral cutaneous of forearm) • lateral pectoral • lateral head of median (anterior interosseous, palmar, common palmar digital, proper palmar digital) Infraclavicular: medial cord medial pectoral • medial cutaneous of forearm • medial cutaneous of arm • ulnar (muscular branches, dorsal branch, palmar branch, superficial branch, deep branch) • medial head of median Infraclavicular: posterior cord subscapular (upper, lower) • thoracodorsal • axillary (superior lateral cutaneous of arm) • radial (muscular, inferior lateral cutaneous of arm, posterior cutaneous of arm, posterior cutaneous of forearm, superficial branch, deep branch, posterior interosseous) Other cutaneous innervation of the upper limbs  •  • [ e] Nerves of lower limbs and lower torso: the lumbosacral plexus lumbar plexus iliohypogastric - ilioinguinal - genitofemoral (femoral branch/lumboinguinal, genital branch) - lateral cutaneous of thigh (patellar) - obturator (anterior, cutaneous, posterior, accessory) - femoral (anterior cutaneous branches, saphenous) sacral/coccygeal plexus to quadratus femoris - to obturator internus - to the piriformis - superior gluteal - inferior gluteal - posterior cutaneous of thigh (inferior cluneal, perineal branches) sciatic: tibial (medial sural cutaneous, sural, medial calcaneal, medial plantar, lateral plantar) - common fibular (lateral sural cutaneous, deep fibular, superficial fibular, medial dorsal cutaneous, intermediate dorsal cutaneous) pudendal plexus perforating cutaneous - pudendal (dorsal of the penis/clitoris, inferior anal, perineal and posterior scrotal/labial) - anococcygeal cutaneous innervation of the lower limbs  •  • [ e] Nervous system: Sensory systems/sense Special senses Visual system/Visual perception • Auditory system/Hearing • Chemoreception (Olfactory system/Olfaction • Gustatory system/Taste) Somatosensory system Nociception • Thermoreception • Vestibular system • Mechanoreception (Pressure, Vibration, Proprioception) Other Sensory receptor  •  • [ e] Sensory system - Visual system Eye • Optic nerve • Optic chiasm • Optic tract • Lateral geniculate nucleus • Optic radiation • Visual cortex • Blobs  •  • [ e] Sensory system - Visual system - Eye Fibrous tunic (outer) Conjunctiva • Sclera  • Schlemm's canal • Trabecular meshwork • Limbus Cornea (Epithelium, Bowman's, Stroma, Descemet's, Endothelium) Uvea (middle) Choroid (Ciliary processes, Choriocapillaris, Bruch's membrane) • Iris (Stroma)  • Pupil • Ciliary body Retina (inner) Macula • Fovea • Optic disc Anterior segment Anterior chamber • Aqueous humour • Posterior chamber • Lens Posterior segment Vitreous humour • Zonular fibers • Zonule of Zinn  •  • [ e] Sensory system: Olfactory system/Olfaction Olfactory bulb • Olfactory nerve • Olfactory epithelium • Glomeruli • Olfactory mucosa • Olfactory receptor neurons • Mitral cells • Piriform cortex Rhinencephalon • Olfactory tract • Olfactory trigone  •  • [ e] Sensory system: Auditory and Vestibular systems Outer ear Pinna (Helix, Antihelix, Tragus, Antitragus, Earlobe) • Ear canal Middle ear Eardrum • Ossicles (Malleus, Incus & Stapes) • Stapedius • Tensor tympani • Eustachian tube (Torus tubarius) Inner ear/Labyrinth Bony labyrinth (Vestibule) • Membranous labyrinth Oval window • Helicotrema • Round window Cochlea: Spiral ganglion • Modiolus • Cochlear duct/scala media (Endolymph, Stria vascularis, Spiral ligament, Organ of Corti) • Scala vestibuli and Scala tympani (Perilymph) Reissner's/vestibular membrane • Basilar membrane • Tectorial membrane Organ of Corti: Hair cells • Stereocilia • Sulcus spiralis (externus, internus) • Limbus spiralis Vestibular system Static/translations: Utricle (Macula) - Saccule (Macula, Endolymphatic sac, Endolymphatic duct) - Kinocilium - Otolith Kinetic/rotations: Semicircular canals (Superior, Posterior, Horizontal) • Cupula • Ampullae (Crista ampullaris) Brain (auditory) Cochlear nerve VIII → Cochlear nuclei → Superior olivary nuclei → Lateral lemniscus → Inferior colliculi → Medial geniculate nuclei → Primary auditory cortex  •  • [ e] Sensory system: Gustatory system Tongue • Taste bud (Circumvallate papillae, Filiform papilla, Fungiform papilla) • Gustatory cortex • Basic tastes  •  • [ e] Nervous system, receptors: somatosensory system Medial lemniscus Touch/mechanoreceptors: Pacinian corpuscles • Meissner's corpuscles • Merkel's discs • Ruffini endings • Free nerve endings • Hair cells • Baroreceptor Proprioception: Golgi organ • Muscle spindle (Intrafusal muscle fiber • Nuclear chain fiber • Nuclear bag fiber) Spinothalamic tract Pain: Nociceptors Temperature: Thermoreceptors Lymphatic system  •  • [ e] Immune system: Lymphatic system (Lymph, Lymphocytes) Primary Bone marrow - Thymus (Hassall's corpuscles) Secondary: Spleen (blood) Hilum - Trabeculae - Red pulp (Cords of Billroth, Marginal zone) - White pulp (Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths) Secondary: Lymph nodes (extracellular fluid) Subcapsular sinus - Paracortex - Lymph vessels - High endothelial venules Secondary: MALT (mucosa) GALT - Peyer's patches  •  • [ e] Lymphatics of head and neck Head Occipital - Mastoid - Parotid (Preauricular) - Buccinator - Submandibular - Submental - Retropharyngeal Neck Cervical (Superficial, Superior deep, Inferior deep) - Supraclavicular (Virchow's) - Paratracheal - Jugular trunk Tonsils/Waldeyer's tonsillar ring Palatine - Lingual - Adenoid - Tubal  •  • [ e] Lymphatics of upper limbs Axillary brachial - pectoral axillary - subscapular axillary - central - apical Other supratrochlear - deltopectoral  •  • [ e] Lymphatics of torso Chest Tracheobronchial - Right lymphatic duct - Thoracic duct (spans diaphragm) Abdomen Cisterna chyli - Lumbar trunk - Intestinal trunk - lumbar/paraaortic (Retroaortic, Lateral aortic, Preaortic, Inferior mesenteric) - iliac (Common, External, Internal)  •  • [ e] Lymphatics of lower limbs Deep inguinal - Superficial inguinal - Popliteal General anatomy  •  • [ e] Anatomy: respiratory system Nose • Nasal cavity • Pharynx • Larynx • Trachea • Lungs • Bronchi • Alveoli • Conducting zone • Respiratory zone  •  • [ e] Anatomy of torso, respiratory system: Lungs and related structures lungs right  left  lingula  apex  base  root  cardiac notch  cardiac impression  hilum  borders (anterior, posterior, inferior)  surfaces (costal, mediastinal, diaphragmatic)  fissures (oblique, horizontal) conducting zone trachea (tracheal rings, carina)  bronchi  main bronchus (right, left) • lobar/secondary bronchi (eparterial bronchus)  segmental/tertiary bronchi (bronchopulmonary segment)  bronchiole  terminal bronchiole respiratory zone respiratory bronchiole  alveolar duct  alveolus  alveolar-capillary barrier pleurae parietal pleura (cervical, costal, mediastinal, diaphragmatic)  pulmonary pleura  pulmonary ligament  recesses (costomediastinal, costodiaphragmatic)  •  • [ e] Anatomy of torso, digestive system: Gastrointestinal tract Upper GI: to stomach Mouth • Pharynx (nasopharynx, oropharynx, hypopharynx) • Esophagus • Crop Upper GI: stomach rugae - gastric pits - cardia/gland - fundus/gland - pylorus/gland - pyloric antrum - greater curvature - lesser curvature Lower GI: intestines Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum) • Vermiform appendix • Ileocecal valve - Large intestine: Cecum • Colon (ascending colon, hepatic flexure, transverse colon, splenic flexure, descending colon, sigmoid colon) Lower GI: after intestines Rectum (Houston valve, rectal ampulla, pectinate line) • Anal canal (anal valves, anal sinuses, anal columns) - Anus: Sphincter ani internus muscle • Sphincter ani externus muscle Lower GI: continuous GALT: Peyer's patches • M cells - intestinal villus • crypts of Lieberkhn • circular folds • taenia coli • haustra • epiploic appendix  •  • [ e] Anatomy of torso, digestive system: Digestive glands Organs Pancreas (Tail, Body, Head, Islets of Langerhans) • Gallbladder • Liver (Hepatocyte, Space of Disse, Kupffer cell, Liver sinusoid, Hepatic stellate cell, Hepatic lobule) Ducts Bile ducts: (Bile canaliculus, Common hepatic duct, Cystic duct, Common bile duct) • Pancreatic duct • Hepatopancreatic ampulla  •  • [ e] Anatomy: urinary system Kidneys • Ureters • Urinary bladder • Urethral sphincters • Urethra  •  • [ e] Urinary system - Kidney Layers Renal fascia • Renal capsule • Renal cortex  (Renal column) • Renal medulla (Renal sinus, Renal pyramids) • Renal lobe • Cortical lobule • Medullary ray • Nephron Afferent circulation Renal artery → Segmental arteries → Interlobar arteries → Arcuate arteries → Cortical radial arteries → Afferent arterioles → Renal corpuscle (Glomerulus, Bowman's capsule) Renal tubule Proximal tubule → Loop of Henle (Descending, Thin ascending, Thick ascending) → Distal convoluted tubule → Connecting tubule → Collecting ducts → Duct of Bellini → Renal papilla → Minor calyx → Major calyx → Renal pelvis → Ureter Efferent circulation Glomerulus → Efferent arterioles → Peritubular capillaries/Vasa recta → Arcuate vein → Interlobar veins → Renal vein Juxtaglomerular apparatus Macula densa • Juxtaglomerular cells • Extraglomerular mesangial cells Filtration Glomerular basement membrane • Podocyte • Filtration slits • Intraglomerular mesangial cells  •  • [ e] Male reproductive system Scrotum layers (skin, Dartos, External spermatic fascia, Cremaster, Internal spermatic fascia) • Perineal raphe • Spermatic cord Testes layers (Tunica vaginalis, Tunica albuginea) • Appendix • Mediastinum • Lobules • Septa • Leydig cell • Sertoli cell • Blood-testis barrier Spermatogenesis Spermatogonium • Spermatocytogenesis • Spermatocyte • Spermatidogenesis • Spermatid • Spermiogenesis • Spermatozoon seminal tract Seminiferous tubules (Tubuli seminiferi recti, Rete testis, Efferent ducts) • Epididymis  (Appendix) • Vas deferens • Ejaculatory duct  Seminal colliculus urinary tract Internal urethral orifice • Urethra (Prostatic, Intermediate, Spongy) • Urethral crest • Urethral gland • External urethral orifice Penis Corpus cavernosum • Corpus spongiosum • Navicular fossa of male urethra • Glans penis • Fundiform ligament • Suspensory ligament • Foreskin • Frenulum accessory glands Seminal vesicles  (Excretory duct of seminal gland) • Prostate  (Prostatic utricle, Prostatic sinus) • Bulbourethral glands  •  • [ e] Female reproductive system Ovaries/Oogenesis Germinal epithelium • Tunica albuginea • cortex (Cumulus oophorus, Stroma) • Medulla Follicles/Folliculogenesis corpus (hemorrhagicum, luteum, albicans) • Theca folliculi (externa, interna) • Follicular antrum (Follicular fluid) • Corona radiata • Zona pellucida • Membrana granulosa (Granulosa cells) Ligaments Proper • Suspensory • Round • Broad (Mesovarium, Mesosalpinx, Mesometrium) • Cardinal Fallopian tubes Isthmus • Ampulla • Infundibulum • Fimbria Uterus cervix/neck (External orifice, Canal of the cervix, Internal orifice) • corpus/body (Cavity of the body, Fundus) • layers (Endometrium, Myometrium, Perimetrium) Vulva Mons pubis • Labium  (Labial commissures, Frenulum labiorum pudendi, Labia majora, Cleft of venus, Labia minora, Vulval vestibule, interlabial sulci) • Clitoris  (Clitoral hood , Clitoral glans, Frenulum clitoridis, Clitoral crura, Corpus cavernosa, Vestibular bulbs) • Vagina (Bartholin's glands, Bartholin's ducts, Skene's glands, Skene's ducts, Fossa of vestibule of vagina, Vaginal fornix, Hymen) Breast Mammary glands • Nipple • Areola • Lactiferous duct Other G-spot • Urethral sponge  •  • [ e] Human anatomy, endocrine system: endocrine glands Hypothalamic/pituitary axes Adrenal axis (Adrenal gland) • Thyroid axis (Thyroid gland, Parathyroid gland) • Gonadal axis (Testes, Ovaries, Corpus luteum) Other Pineal gland • Islets of pancreas  •  • [ e] Immune system / Immunology Systems Adaptive immune system vs. Innate immune system • Humoral immune system vs. Cellular immune system • Complement system (Anaphylatoxins) Antibodies and antigens Antibody (Monoclonal antibodies, Polyclonal antibodies, Autoantibody) • Allotype • Isotype • Idiotype • Antigen (Superantigen) Immune cells White blood cells (T cell, B cell, NK cell, Mast cell, Basophil, Eosinophil) • Phagocyte (Neutrophil, Macrophage, Dendritic cell) • Antigen-presenting cell • Reticuloendothelial system Immunity vs. tolerance Immunity • Autoimmunity • Allergy • Tolerance (Central) • Immunodeficiency Immunogenetics Somatic hypermutation • V(D)J recombination • Immunoglobulin class switching • MHC / HLA Other Cytokines • Inflammation • Opsonin  •  • [ e] Integumentary system structures Skin • Sweat glands • Sebaceous glands • Hair (Hair follicle) • Nails • Scale layers Epidermis (Stratum corneum, Stratum lucidum, Stratum granulosum, Stratum spinosum, Stratum germinativum/basale) • Dermis • Subcutis  •  • [ e] Anatomy: meninges of the brain and medulla spinalis Layers Dura mater (Falx cerebri, Tentorium cerebelli, Falx cerebelli) • Arachnoid mater (Arachnoid granulation) • Subarachnoid space • Pia mater Cisterns Cisterna magna • Pontine cistern • Interpeduncular cistern • Chiasmatic • Lateral cerebral fossa • Great cerebral vein Other Cerebrospinal fluid  •  • [ e] General anatomy of head and neck - head Face/Occiput Forehead • Eye • Ear • Temple • Cheek • Chin External nose Nostril • Nasal septum • Cartilages (Accessory nasal, of the septum, Greater alar, Lateral nasal, Lesser alar, Vomeronasal)  • Olfactory glands Nasal cavity Choana • Turbinate • Sphenoethmoidal recess • Ethmoid bulla • Hiatus semilunaris • Ostium maxillare • Inferior meatus • Vomeronasal organ • Paranasal sinus Mouth/oral cavity Lip • Philtrum • Jaw • Pterygomandibular raphe Teeth Permanent (Incisor, Canine, Premolar, Molar)  • Deciduous Tongue Plica fimbriata • Median sulcus • Foramen cecum • Terminal sulcus • Frenulum linguae • Anterior tongue • Posterior tongue Palate/roof of mouth Hard palate • Soft palate • Palatine raphe • Incisive papilla • Uvula • Pharyngeal recess • Arches: (Palatoglossal • Palatopharyngeal) Salivary glands (Parotid • Sublingual • Submandibular) • Ducts: Submandibular • Parotid fascia Masseteric fascia • Temporal fascia • Galea aponeurotica • Scalp  •  • [ e] General anatomy of upper limbs Arm Clavipectoral triangle  spaces (Quadrangular space, Triangular space, Triangular interval)  Axilla  Axillary sheath  Anterior axillary fold  fascia (Axillary, Brachial)  compartment of arm (Posterior, Anterior)  intermuscular septa (Lateral, Medial) Forearm Cubital fossa (Bicipital aponeurosis)  common tendons (Extensor, Flexor)  Interosseous membrane of the forearm  compartment of forearm (Posterior, Anterior)  Antebrachial fascia  Carpal tunnel Hand Anatomical snuff box  reticula of the hand (Extensor, Flexor)  Finger  Extensor expansion  Palmar aponeurosis  •  • [ e] General anatomy of torso Thorax Mediastinum (Superior, Anterior, Middle, Posterior) • Superior thoracic aperture • Inferior thoracic aperture • Triangle of auscultation • Intercostal space • Thoracic plane • Thoracic cavity • Thoracic cage Thoracic diaphragm openings (Caval opening, Esophageal hiatus, Aortic hiatus, Foramina of Morgagni) • Central tendon • Crus of diaphragm • arcuate ligaments (Lateral, Medial, Median) Abdomen McBurney's point • Lumbar triangle • Arcuate line • Linea alba Perineum Urogenital triangle • Anal triangle • Superficial perineal pouch • Perineal membrane • Deep perineal pouch • Urogenital diaphragm • Superior fascia of the urogenital diaphragm • Ischiorectal fossa - Pudendal canal Fascia Pectoral fascia - Clavipectoral fascia - Transversalis fascia - Deep inguinal ring - Superficial inguinal ring - Fascia of Camper - Fascia of Scarpa - Fascia of Colles  •  • [ e] General anatomy of lower limbs Buttocks and Thigh Inguinal ligament  Obturator membrane  Femoral ring  Femoral canal  Femoral sheath  Femoral triangle  Adductor canal  Adductor hiatus  Fascia lata  Saphenous opening  Iliotibial tract  Fascial compartments of thigh (Anterior, Medial, Posterior) Cnemis (anatomic leg) Popliteal fossa  Calf  Shin  Pes anserinus  Fascial compartments of leg (Anterior, Lateral, Posterior) Foot Heel  Plantar fascia  Toe (Hallux, Fifth toe)  Sole  Achilles tendon  Tarsal tunnel  Retinacula (Peroneal, Inferior extensor, Superior extensor)