)
The Magna Carta or "Great Charter" was the world's first document containing commitments by a sovereign to his people to respect certain legal rights
The idea of human rights descended from the philosophical idea of natural rights that are provided by God;[3] some recognize virtually no difference between the two and regard both as labels for the same thing while others choose to keep the terms separate to eliminate association with some features traditionally associated with natural rights.[4] John Locke is perhaps the most prominent philosopher that developed this theory.[5]
Human rights sources
The United Nations
)
The UN General Assembly
The United Nations Human Rights Council is involved with the investigation into violations of human rights.[6] The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principle judicial organ of the United Nations.[7]
Europe
)
European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg
Human rights commonly include:
- security rights that prohibit crimes such as murder/"enforced" involuntary suicide, massacre, torture and rape
- liberty rights that protect freedoms in areas such as belief and religion, association, assembling and movement
- political rights that protect the liberty to participate in politics by expressing themselves, protesting, participating in a republic
- due process rights that protect against abuses of the legal system such as arrest and imprisonment without trial, secret trials and excessive punishments
- equality rights that guarantee equal citizenship, equality before the law and nondiscrimination
- welfare rights (also known as economic rights) that require the provision of, e.g., education, paid holidays, and protections against severe poverty and starvation
- group rights
History of human rights
Human Rights in the ancient world
Ur-Nammu, king of Ur in ca. 2050 BC created the Code of Ur-Nammu, the oldest legal codex that survives today. Several other sets of laws were created in Mesopotamia including the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 1780 BC), one of the best preserved examples of this type of document. It shows rules, and punishments if those rules are broken, on a variety of matters including women's rights, children's rights and slave rights.The prefaces of these codes invoked the Mesopotamian gods for divine sanction. Societies have often derived the origins of human rights in religious documents. The Vedas, the Bible, the Qur'an and the Analects of Confucius are some of the oldest written sources that address questions of people's duties, rights, and responsibilities.
Persian Empire
- See also:
)
In the Persian Empire, citizens of all religions and ethnic groups were also given the same rights, while women had the same rights as men. The Cyrus cylinder also documents the protection of the rights to liberty and security, freedom of movement, the right of property, and economic and social rights.[9]
Maurya Empire
- See also: Maurya Empire
In the Maurya Empire, citizens of all religions and ethnic groups also had rights to freedom, tolerance, and equality. The need for tolerance on an egalitarian basis can be found in the Edicts of Ashoka, which emphasize the importance of tolerance in public policy by the government. The slaughter or capture of prisoners of war was also condemned by Ashoka.[11] Slavery was also non-existent in ancient India.[12]
Early Islamic Caliphate
Many reforms in human rights took place under Islam between 610 and 661, including the period of Muhammad's mission and the rule of the four immediate successors who established the Rashidun Caliphate. Historians generally agree that Muhammad preached against what he saw as the social evils of his day,[13] and that Islamic social reforms in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery, and the rights of women and ethnic minorities improved on what was present in existing Arab society at the time.[14][15][16][17][18][19] For example, according to Bernard Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents."[14] John Esposito sees Muhammad as a reformer who condemned practices of the pagan Arabs such as female infanticide, exploitation of the poor, usury, murder, false contracts, and theft.[20] Bernard Lewis believes that the egalitarian nature of Islam "represented a very considerable advance on the practice of both the Greco-Roman and the ancient Iranian world."[21]
Muhammad made it the responsibility of the Islamic government to provide food and clothing, on a reasonable basis, to captives, regardless of their religion. If the prisoners were in the custody of a person, then the responsibility was on the individual.[22] Lewis states that Islam brought two major changes to ancient slavery which were to have far-reaching consequences. "One of these was the presumption of freedom; the other, the ban on the enslavement of free persons except in strictly defined circumstances," Lewis continues. The position of the Arabian slave was "enormously improved": the Arabian slave "was now no longer merely a chattel but was also a human being with a certain religious and hence a social status and with certain quasi-legal rights."[23]
Esposito states that reforms in women's rights affected marriage, divorce, and inheritance.[24] Women were not accorded with such legal status in other cultures, including the West, until centuries later.[25] The Oxford Dictionary of Islam states that the general improvement of the status of Arab women included prohibition of female infanticide and recognizing women's full personhood.[26] "The dowry, previously regarded as a bride-price paid to the father, became a nuptial gift retained by the wife as part of her personal property."[27][24] Under Islamic law, marriage was no longer viewed as a "status" but rather as a "contract", in which the woman's consent was imperative.[27][24][26] "Women were given inheritance rights in a patriarchal society that had previously restricted inheritance to male relatives."[24] Annemarie Schimmel states that "compared to the pre-Islamic position of women, Islamic legislation meant an enormous progress; the woman has the right, at least according to the letter of the law, to administer the wealth she has brought into the family or has earned by her own work."[28] William Montgomery Watt states that Muhammad, in the historical context of his time, can be seen as a figure who testified on behalf of women’s rights and improved things considerably. Watt explains: "At the time Islam began, the conditions of women were terrible - they had no right to own property, were supposed to be the property of the man, and if the man died everything went to his sons." Muhammad, however, by "instituting rights of property ownership, inheritance, education and divorce, gave women certain basic safeguards."[29] Haddad and Esposito state that "Muhammad granted women rights and privileges in the sphere of family life, marriage, education, and economic endeavors, rights that help improve women's status in society."[30]
Sociologist Robert Bellah (Beyond belief) argues that Islam in its seventh-century origins was, for its time and place, "remarkably modern...in the high degree of commitment, involvement, and participation expected from the rank-and-file members of the community." This because, he argues, that Islam emphasized on the equality of all Muslims, where leadership positions were open to all. Dale Eickelman writes that Bellah suggests "the early Islamic community placed a particular value on individuals, as opposed to collective or group responsibility."[31]
Human rights in early modern era
)
Two major revolutions occurred that century in the United States (1776) and in France (1789). The Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 sets up a number of fundamental rights and freedoms. The later United States Declaration of Independence includes concepts of natural rights and famously states "that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." Similarly, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen defines a set of individual and collective rights of the people. These are held to be universal - not only to French citizens but to all men without exception.
Modern Era
Philosophers such as Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill and Hegel expanded on the theme of universality during the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1831 William Lloyd Garrison wrote in a newspaper called The Liberator that he was trying to enlist his readers in "the great cause of human rights"[32] so the term human rights probably came into use sometime between Paine's The Rights of Man and Garrison's publication. In 1849 a contemporary, Henry David Thoreau, wrote about human rights in his treatise On the Duty of Civil Disobedience [1] which was later influential on human rights and civil rights thinkers. United States Supreme Court Justice David Davis, in his 1867 opinion for Ex Parte Milligan, wrote "By the protection of the law, human rights are secured; withdraw that protection and they are at the mercy of wicked rulers or the clamor of an excited people."[33]
)
Many groups and movements have managed to achieve profound social changes over the course of the 20th century in the name of human rights. In Western Europe and North America, labour unions brought about laws granting workers the right to strike, establishing minimum work conditions and forbidding or regulating child labour. The women's rights movement succeeded in gaining for many women the right to vote. National liberation movements in many countries succeeded in driving out colonial powers. One of the most influential was Mahatma Gandhi's movement to free his native India from British rule. Movements by long-oppressed racial and religious minorities succeeded in many parts of the world, among them the civil rights movement, and more recent diverse identity politics movements, on behalf of women and minorities in the United States.
After World War II
)
"It is not a treaty...[In the future, it] may well become the international Magna Carta."[34] Eleanor Roosevelt with the Spanish text of the Universal Declaration in 1949
Many states wanted to go beyond the declaration of rights and create legal covenants which would put greater pressure on states to follow human rights norms. Because some states disagreed over whether this international covenant should contain economic and social rights (which usually require a greater effort to fulfill on the part of individual states), two treaties were prepared.
In 1976, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights was adopted by the United Nations. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights came into force in 1976. It commits 155 state parties to work toward the granting of economic, social, and cultural rights (ESCR) to individuals. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (abbreviated UDHR) is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (A/RES/217, 1948-12-10 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris).
| ...recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world | ||
—Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 | ||
- Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (entry into force: 1951) http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/p_genoci.htm
- Convention against Torture (entry into force: 1984) http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (entry into force: 1969) http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/d_icerd.htm
- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (entry into force: 1981) http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/index.html
- Convention on the Rights of the Child (entry into force: 1989) http://www.unicef.org/crc
- Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (entry into force: 2002)
International bodies
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights created an agency, the Human Rights Committee to promote participation with its standards. The eighteen members of the committee express opinions as to whether a particular practice is a human rights violation, although these reports are not legally binding.A modern interpretation of the original Declaration of Human Rights was made in the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in 1993. The degree of unanimity over these conventions, in terms of how many and which countries have ratified them varies, as does the degree to which they are respected by various states. The UN has set up a number of bodies to monitor and study human rights, under the leadership of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR).
Regional legislation
There are also many regional agreements and organisations governing human rights including the European Court of Human Rights, which is the only international court with jurisdiction to deal with cases brought by individuals (rather than states); the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights; Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam; Inter-American Court of Human Rights; and Iran's Defenders of Human Rights Center.Philosophy of human rights
Theory of value and property
- See also: Property
Types
A few groups, such as conceptually divide rights into negative and positive rights. By this distinction, "negative" human rights, which follow mainly from the Anglo-American legal tradition of natural rights, are rights that a government and/or private entities may never take action to remove. For example, right to life and security of person; freedom from slavery; equality before the law and due process under the rule of law; freedom of movement; freedoms of speech, religion, assembly; the right to bear arms. These have been codified in documents including the Scottish Claim of Right, the English Bill of Rights the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the United States Bill of Rights and Fourteenth Amendment.This distinction holds that "Positive" human rights mainly follow from the Rousseauian Continental European legal tradition and denote human rights and entitlements that the state is obliged to protect and provide. Examples of such rights include: the rights to education, to health care, to a livelihood. Such 'positive rights' have been codified in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Articles 22-28) and in many 20th-century constitutions.
Another categorization, offered by Karel Vasak, is that there are three generations of human rights: first-generation civil and political rights (right to life and political participation), second-generation economic, social and cultural rights (right to subsistence) and third-generation solidarity rights (right to peace, right to clean environment). Out of these generations, the third generation is the most debated and lacks both legal and political recognition. Some theorists discredit these divisions by claiming that rights are interconnected. Arguably, for example, basic education is necessary for the right to political participation.
Some human rights are said to be "inalienable rights." The term inalienable rights (or unalienable rights) refers to "a set of human rights that are fundamental, are not awarded by human power, and cannot be surrendered."[37]
Justification of human rights
Several theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how human rights become part of social expectations. The biological theory considers the comparative reproductive advantage of human social behavior based on empathy and altruism in the context of natural selection. Other theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior, which is a human, social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated with Hume) or as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of Weber). This approach includes the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage (as in Rawls).On the other hand, natural law theories base human rights on the “natural” moral order that derives from religious precepts such as common understandings of justice and the belief that moral behavior is a set of objectively valid prescriptions. Some have used religious texts such as the Bible and Qur'an to support human rights arguments. However, there are also more secular forms of natural law theory that understand human rights as derivative of the notion of universal human dignity.[38]
Yet others have attempted to construct an "interests theory" defence of human rights. For example the philosopher John Finnis argues that human rights are justifiable on the grounds of their instrumental value in creating the necessary conditions for human well-being. Some interest-theorists also justify the duty to respect the rights of other individuals on grounds of self-interest (rather than altruism or benevolence). Reciprocal recognition and respect of rights ensures that one's own will be protected.
Ultimately, the term "human rights" is often itself an appeal to a transcendent principle, not based on existing legal concepts. The term "humanism" refers to the developing doctrine of such universally applicable values. The term "human rights" has replaced the term "natural rights" in popularity, because the rights are less and less frequently seen as requiring natural law for their existence.[39]
Criticism of human rights
One of the arguments made against the concept of human rights is that it suffers from cultural imperialism. In particular, the concept of human rights is fundamentally rooted in a politically liberal outlook which, although generally accepted in Western Europe, Japan, India and North America, is not necessarily taken as standard elsewhere. An appeal is often made to the fact that influential human rights thinkers, such as John Locke and John Stuart Mill, have all been Western and indeed that some were involved in the running of Empires themselves. The cultural imperialism argument achieves even greater potency when it is made on the basis of religion. Some histories of human rights emphasise the Christian influence on the agenda and then question whether this is in keeping with the tenets of other world religions. For example, in 1981, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, articulated the position of his country regarding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by saying that the UDHR was "a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without trespassing the Islamic law.[40]A final set of debating points revolves around the question of who has the duty to uphold human rights. Human rights have historically arisen from the need to protect citizens from abuse by the state and this might suggest that all mankind has a duty to intervene and protect people wherever they are. Divisive national loyalties, which emphasise differences between people rather than their similarities, can thus be seen as a destructive influence on the human rights movement because they deny people's innately similar human qualities.[41] But others argue that state sovereignty is paramount, not least because it is often the state that has signed up to human rights treaties in the first place. Commentators' positions in the argument for and against intervention and the use of force by states are influenced by whether they believe human rights are largely a legal or moral duty and whether they are of more cosmopolitan or nationalist persuasion.
Human rights violations
Human rights violations are abuses of people in ways that abuse any fundamental human rights. It is a term used when a government violates national or international law related to the protection of human rights. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights fundamental human rights are violated when, among other things:
|
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Human rights violations and abuses include those alleged by non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, World Organisation Against Torture, Freedom House, International Freedom of Expression Exchange and Anti-Slavery International that collect evidence and documentation. Only a very few countries do not commit significant human rights violations, according to Amnesty International. In their 2004 human rights report (covering 2003) the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Iceland and Costa Rica are the only (mappable) countries that did not violate at least some human rights significantly.[42]
Some people believe human rights abuses are more common in dictatorships or theocracies than in democracies because freedom of speech and freedom of the press tend to uncover state orchestrated abuse and expose it. Nonetheless human rights abuses do also occur in democracies.
Many suggest the basic problem in dealing with Human Rights is the lack of understanding of the basic laws of fiduciary control. International equity expert Professor Paul Finn has underlined, “the most fundamental fiduciary relationship in our society is manifestly that which exists between the community (the people) and the state, its agencies and officials]. "
In equity a politicians fiduciary obligations not only comprise duties of good faith and loyalty, but also include duties of skill and competence in managing a country and it's people.
It is widely agreed Government is a 'trust structure' created by people to manage the needs of society. The relationship between government and the governed is clearly a fiduciary one. Yet rules such as Sovereign Immunity or Crown and Judicial Immunity are now being targeted as the very the tools of oppression that are preventing those being abused from taking action against the person controlling the laws of a country. Originating from within the Courts of Equity, the fiduciary concept was partly designed to prevent those holding positions of power from abusing their authority.
Modern arguments suggest anyone accepting any judicial, political or government control over the interests of people requires moral obligations of the highest responsibility and trust. Its conduct should therefore be judged by the most exacting fiduciary standards. The fiduciary relationship arises from the governments ability to control people with the exercise of that power. In effect, if a government staff have the power to abolish any rights they are burdened with the fiduciary duty to protect such an interest because the government would benefit from the exercise of its own discretion to extinguish rights which it alone had the power to dispose of.
Human Rights Violation/State Repression Data
National human rights institutions
In over 110 countries National human rights institutions (NHRIs) have been set up to protect, promote or monitor human rights in a given country. There are now over 110 such bodies.[43] Not all of them are compliant with the United Nations advisory standards as set out in the 1993 Paris Principles, but the number and effect of these institutions is increasing.[44]See also
- Multilateral organisations
Notes
1. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
2. ^ UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS adopted by General Assembly resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948. [3]
3. ^ Natural rights, The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2005) [4]
4. ^ Peter Jones. Rights. Palgrave Macmillan, 1994, p. 73
5. ^ Natural rights, The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2005) [5]
6. ^ United Nations Rights Council Page
7. ^ International Court of Justice homepage [6]
8. ^ Engineering an Empire: Persian Empire
9. ^ Arthur Henry Robertson, John Graham Merrills (1996). Human Rights in the World: An Introduction to the Study of the International Protection of Human Rights. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719049237.
10. ^ O. P. Chauhan (2004). Human Rights: Promotion and Protection. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 812612119X.
11. ^ Amartya Sen (1997). Human Rights and Asian Values. ISBN 0-87641-151-0.
12. ^ Arrian, Indica, "This also is remarkable in India, that all Indians are free, and no Indian at all is a slave. In this the Indians agree with the Lacedaemonians. Yet the Lacedaemonians have Helots for slaves, who perform the duties of slaves; but the Indians have no slaves at all, much less is any Indian a whore."
13. ^ Encyclopedia of world history (1998), p.452, Oxford University Press
14. ^ Lewis, Bernard. "Islamic Revolution", The New York Review of Books, January 21, 1998.
15. ^ Watt (1974), p.234
16. ^ Robinson (2004) p.21
17. ^ Esposito (1998), p. 98
18. ^ "Ak̲h̲lāḳ", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
19. ^ Nancy Gallagher, Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures, Infanticide and Abandonment of Female Children
20. ^ Esposito, Islam the Straight Path, p. 79, Oxford University Press
21. ^ Lewis, Bernard. "Islamic Revolution", The New York Review of Books, January 21, 1998.
22. ^ Maududi (1967), Introduction of Ad-Dahr, "Period of revelation", pg. 159
23. ^ Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East, Oxford Univ Press 1994, chapter 1
24. ^ John Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path p. 79
25. ^ Encyclopedia of religion, second edition, Lindsay Jones, p.6224, ISBN 0-02-865742-X
26. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p. 339
27. ^ Majid Khadduri, Marriage in Islamic Law: The Modernist Viewpoints, American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 213-218
28. ^ Annemarie Schimmel, Islam-: An Introduction, p.65, SUNY Press, 1992
29. ^ Interview: William Montgomery Watt, by Bashir Maan & Alastair McIntosh (1999). A paper using the material on this interview was published in The Coracle, the Iona Community, summer 2000, issue 3:51, pp. 8-11.
30. ^ Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, John L. Esposito, Islam, Gender, and Social Change, Oxford University Press US, 2004, p.163
31. ^ “Social Sciences and the Qur’an,” in Encyclopedia of the Qur’an, vol. 5, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe. Leiden: Brill, pp. 66-76.
32. ^ Mayer, Henry "All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery" St. Martin's Press, 1998, p. 110
33. ^ Ex Parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2, 119.
34. ^ Eleanor Roosevelt: Address to the United Nations General Assembly 10 December 1948 in Paris, France
35. ^ The Idea of Natural Rights: Studies on Natural Rights, Natural Law, and Church Law 1150 ¿ 1625. Brian Tierney 1997. ISBN-10: 0802848540.
36. ^
37. ^ See Wikipedia article "inalienable rights"
38. ^ Kohen, Ari (2007). In Defense of Human Rights: A Non-Religious Grounding in a Pluralistic World. Routledge. ISBN 0415420156 , ISBN 978-0415420150
39. ^ Weston, Burns H. Human Rights in Encyclopedia Britannica Online, p. 2, Retrieved May 18, 2006
40. ^ Littman, David. "Universal Human Rights and 'Human Rights in Islam'". Midstream, February/March 1999
41. ^ Klitou, Demetrius The Friends and Foes of Human Rights
42. ^ (2004) Amnesty International Report 2004. Amnesty International. ISBN 0862103541.
43. ^ National Human Rights Institutions Forum is the official portal for the National Human Rights Institutions and show a list of 119 institutions that can be found at [8]
44. ^ HURIDOCS has developed extensive methodologies for monitoring and documenting human rights violations, and more resources can be found at Human Rights Tools
2. ^ UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS adopted by General Assembly resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948. [3]
3. ^ Natural rights, The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2005) [4]
4. ^ Peter Jones. Rights. Palgrave Macmillan, 1994, p. 73
5. ^ Natural rights, The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia (2005) [5]
6. ^ United Nations Rights Council Page
7. ^ International Court of Justice homepage [6]
8. ^ Engineering an Empire: Persian Empire
9. ^ Arthur Henry Robertson, John Graham Merrills (1996). Human Rights in the World: An Introduction to the Study of the International Protection of Human Rights. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719049237.
10. ^ O. P. Chauhan (2004). Human Rights: Promotion and Protection. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 812612119X.
11. ^ Amartya Sen (1997). Human Rights and Asian Values. ISBN 0-87641-151-0.
12. ^ Arrian, Indica, "This also is remarkable in India, that all Indians are free, and no Indian at all is a slave. In this the Indians agree with the Lacedaemonians. Yet the Lacedaemonians have Helots for slaves, who perform the duties of slaves; but the Indians have no slaves at all, much less is any Indian a whore."
13. ^ Encyclopedia of world history (1998), p.452, Oxford University Press
14. ^ Lewis, Bernard. "Islamic Revolution", The New York Review of Books, January 21, 1998.
15. ^ Watt (1974), p.234
16. ^ Robinson (2004) p.21
17. ^ Esposito (1998), p. 98
18. ^ "Ak̲h̲lāḳ", Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
19. ^ Nancy Gallagher, Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures, Infanticide and Abandonment of Female Children
20. ^ Esposito, Islam the Straight Path, p. 79, Oxford University Press
21. ^ Lewis, Bernard. "Islamic Revolution", The New York Review of Books, January 21, 1998.
22. ^ Maududi (1967), Introduction of Ad-Dahr, "Period of revelation", pg. 159
23. ^ Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East, Oxford Univ Press 1994, chapter 1
24. ^ John Esposito, Islam: The Straight Path p. 79
25. ^ Encyclopedia of religion, second edition, Lindsay Jones, p.6224, ISBN 0-02-865742-X
26. ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam (2003), p. 339
27. ^ Majid Khadduri, Marriage in Islamic Law: The Modernist Viewpoints, American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 213-218
28. ^ Annemarie Schimmel, Islam-: An Introduction, p.65, SUNY Press, 1992
29. ^ Interview: William Montgomery Watt, by Bashir Maan & Alastair McIntosh (1999). A paper using the material on this interview was published in The Coracle, the Iona Community, summer 2000, issue 3:51, pp. 8-11.
30. ^ Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, John L. Esposito, Islam, Gender, and Social Change, Oxford University Press US, 2004, p.163
31. ^ “Social Sciences and the Qur’an,” in Encyclopedia of the Qur’an, vol. 5, ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe. Leiden: Brill, pp. 66-76.
32. ^ Mayer, Henry "All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery" St. Martin's Press, 1998, p. 110
33. ^ Ex Parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2, 119.
34. ^ Eleanor Roosevelt: Address to the United Nations General Assembly 10 December 1948 in Paris, France
35. ^ The Idea of Natural Rights: Studies on Natural Rights, Natural Law, and Church Law 1150 ¿ 1625. Brian Tierney 1997. ISBN-10: 0802848540.
36. ^
37. ^ See Wikipedia article "inalienable rights"
38. ^ Kohen, Ari (2007). In Defense of Human Rights: A Non-Religious Grounding in a Pluralistic World. Routledge. ISBN 0415420156 , ISBN 978-0415420150
39. ^ Weston, Burns H. Human Rights in Encyclopedia Britannica Online, p. 2, Retrieved May 18, 2006
40. ^ Littman, David. "Universal Human Rights and 'Human Rights in Islam'". Midstream, February/March 1999
41. ^ Klitou, Demetrius The Friends and Foes of Human Rights
42. ^ (2004) Amnesty International Report 2004. Amnesty International. ISBN 0862103541.
43. ^ National Human Rights Institutions Forum is the official portal for the National Human Rights Institutions and show a list of 119 institutions that can be found at [8]
44. ^ HURIDOCS has developed extensive methodologies for monitoring and documenting human rights violations, and more resources can be found at Human Rights Tools
References
- Pro.Dr.Tahir-ul-Qadri, Huquq al Insania fil Islam (Human Rights in Islam),Minhaj Publishers (2005) 365-M-Model Town Lahore,Pakistan
- Steiner, J. & Alston, Philip. (1996). International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 019825427X
- Barzilai, Gad. (2003). Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
- Davenport, Christian (2007). State Repression and the Domestic Democratic Peace. New York: Cambridge University Press.
- Davenport, Christian (2007). State Repression and Political Order. Annual Review of Political Science.
- Donnelly, Jack. (2003). Universal Human Rights in Theory & Practice. 2nd ed. Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press.
- Ellerman, David (2005). Helping People Help Themselves: From the World Bank to an Alternative Philosophy of Development Assistance. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
- Forsythe, David P. (2000). Human Rights in International Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Köchler, Hans. (1981). The Principles of International Law and Human Rights
- Köchler, Hans. (1990). Democracy and Human Rights. (Studies in International Relations, XV.) Vienna: International Progress Organization. ISBN 3-900704-08-2
- Ignatieff, Michael. Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry. Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press.
- Landman, Todd (2006) Studying Human Rights, Oxford and London: Routledge ISBN 0-415-32605-2
- Shute, Stephen & Hurley, Susan (eds.). (1993). On Human Rights: The Oxford Amnesty Lectures. New York: BasicBooks.
- Hans-Georg Möller, How to Distinguish Friends from Enemies: Human Rights Rhetoric and Western Mass Media. In Peter D. Hershock, R.T. Ames and M. Stepaniants (eds.), Technology and Cultural Values on the Edge of the Third Millennium. (Selected papers from the 8 th East-West Philosophers Conference) Honolulu: U of Hawai’i Press, 2003. 209-221.
- Sunga, Lyal S. (1992) Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations, Nijhoff Publishers.
- Donnelly, Jack. Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice. Cornell University Press, 2003.
- McLagan, Meg Principles, Publicity, and Politics: Notes on Human Rights Media American Anthropologist September 2003, Vol. 105, No. 3, pp. 605-612
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