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Astronomical instruments

Main article: Islamic astronomy

Astrolabes

• Brass astrolabe by Muhammad al-Fazari in the 8th century.^[1]
• Earliest surviving astrolabe in 315 AH (927-928 CE).
• Mechanical geared astrolabe by Ibn Samh (c. 1020).^[2]
• Navigational astrolabe was invented in the Islamic world. It employed the use of a polar projection system.^[3]
• Orthographical astrolabe by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the 11th century.^[4]
• Saphaea, a universal astrolabe for all latitudes, by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in 11th century Islamic Spain.
• Linear astrolabe ("staff of al-Tusi") by Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī in the 12th century.^[5]
• In the 10th century, al-Sufi first described over 1000 different uses of an astrolabe, including uses in astronomy, astrology, horoscopes, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, Qibla, Salah, etc.^[6]

Analog computers

• Equatorium by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel) in Islamic Spain circa 1015.^[6]
• Planisphere by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the 11th century.^[4]
• Mechanical lunisolar calendar computer with gear train and gear-wheels by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī.^[7]
• Fixed-wired knowledge processing machine by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī.^[8]
• Mechanical astrolabe with calendar computer and gear-wheels by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.^[9]
• Oldest surviving complete mechanical geared machine by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.^[10][11]
• The Plate of Conjunctions, a computing instrument used to determine the time of day at which planetary conjunctions will occur,^[12] and for performing linear interpolation,^[12] invented by al-Kashi in the 15th century.
• A mechanical planetary computer called the Plate of Zones, which could graphically solve a number of planetary problems, invented by al-Kashi in the 15th century. It could predict the true positions in longitude of the Sun and Moon,^[12] and the planets in terms of elliptical orbits;^[14] the latitudes of the Sun, Moon, and planets; and the ecliptic of the Sun. The instrument also incorporated an alhidade and ruler.^[15]

Armillary spheres

• Several different types of armillary spheres.
• Celestial globes which could calculate the altitude of the Sun and the right ascension and declination of the stars in the 11th century.
• The spherical astrolabe was first produced in the Islamic world by the 14th century.^[16]

  Mural instruments

  • The first quadrants and mural instruments by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad, Iraq.^[17]
  • Sine quadrant for astronomical calculations by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad.^[17]
  • Horary quadrant for specific latitudes by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad.^[17]
  • The Quadrans Vetus, a universal horary quadrant which could be used for any latitude and at any time of the year to determine the time, as well as the times of Salah, invented by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad. This was the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the Middle Ages after the astrolabe.^[18]
  • The Quadrans Novus, an astrolabic quadrant invented in Egypt in the 11th century or 12th century, and later known in Europe as the "Quadrans Vetus" (New Quadrant).^[19]
  • Almucantar quadrant, invented in the medieval Islamic world. It emplyed the use of trigonometry. The term "almucantar" is itself derived from Arabic.^[20]
  • Sextant by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi in Ray, Iran in 994.^[21]

  Other instruments

  • Alhidade (the term "alhidade" is itself derived from Arabic).
  • Shadow square, an instrument used to determine the linear height of an object, in conjunction with the alidade for angular observations, invented by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th century Baghdad.^[22]
  • Highly accurate astronomical clocks.^[23]
  • Astrometric device in Islamic Spain around 1015.
  • Star chart by Abu Rayhan al-Biruni in the 11th century.^[4]

  Aviation technology

  Parachute

  In 9th century Islamic Spain, Abbas Ibn Firnas (Armen Firnas) invented a primitive version of the parachute.^{[24][25][26][27]} John H. Lienhard described it in The Engines of Our Ingenuity as follows:

  Hang glider

  Shortly afterwards, Abbas Ibn Firnas built the first hang glider, which may have also been the first manned glider. Knowledge of Firman and Firnas' flying machines spread to other parts of Europe from Arabic references.^[24][25]
  
  According to Philip Hitti in History of the Arabs:

  Flight controls

  Abbas Ibn Firnas was the first to make an attempt at controlled flight. He manuipulated the flight controls of his hang glider using two sets of artificial wings to adjust his altitude and to change his direction. He successfully returned to where he had lifted off from, but his landing was unsuccessful.^[28][29]

  Artificial wings

  Ibn Firnas' hang glider was the first to have artificial wings, though the flight was eventually unsuccessful. According to Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century, Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi was the first aviator to have made a successful flight with artificial wings between 1630-1632.^[30]

  Artificially-powered manned rocket

  According to Evliya Çelebi in the 17th century, Lagari Hasan Çelebi launched himself in the air in a seven-winged rocket, which was composed of a large cage with a conical top filled with gunpowder. The flight was accomplished as a part of celebrations performed for the birth of Ottoman Emperor Murad IV's daughter in 1633. Evliya reported that Lagari made a soft landing in the Bosporus by using the wings attached to his body as a parachute after the gunpowder was consumed, foreshadowing the sea-landing methods of astronauts with parachutes after their voyages into outer space. Lagari's flight was estimated to have lasted about twenty seconds and the maximum height reached was around 300 metres. This was the first known example of a manned rocket and an artificially-powered aircraft.^[30]

  Camera technology

  

  Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), the "father of optics" and pioneer of the modern scientific method, invented the camera obscura and pinhole camera.
  In ancient times, Euclid and Ptolemy believed that the eyes emitted rays which enabled us to see. The first person to realise that rays of light enters the eye, rather than leaving it, was the 10th century Muslim mathematician, astronomer and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), who is regarded as the "father of optics".^[31] He is also credited with being the first man to shift physics from a philosophical activity to an experimental one, with his development of the scientific method. The word "camera" comes from the Arabic word qamara for a dark or private room.^[31]

  Pinhole camera

  Ibn al-Haytham first described pinhole camera after noticing the way light came through a hole in window shutters.^[31]

  Camera obscura

  Ibn al-Haytham worked out that the smaller the hole, the better the picture, and set up the first camera obscura,^[31] a precursor to the modern camera.

  Chemical technology

  Main article: Alchemy (Islam)

  

  Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), the father of chemistry, invented the alembic still and many chemicals, including distilled alcohol, and established the perfume industry.
  
  
  Early forms of distillation were known to the Babylonians, Greeks and Egyptians since ancient times, but it was Muslim chemists who first invented pure distillation processes which could fully purify chemical substances. They also developed several different variations of distillation (such as dry distillation, destructive distillation and steam distillation) and introduced new distillation aparatus (such as the alembic, still, and retort), and invented a variety of new chemical processes and over 2,000 chemical substances.^[31]

  Chemical processes

  Geber first invented the following chemical processes in the 8th century:
  • Pure distillation (al-taqtir) which could fully purify chemical substances with the alembic.
  • Filtration (al-tarshih).^[32]
  • Liquefaction, crystallization (al-tabalwur), purification, oxidisation, and evaporation (tabkhir).^[31]
  Al-Razi invented the following chemical processes in the 9th century:
  • Dry distillation
  • Calcination (al-tashwiya).^[31][6]
  • Solution (al-tahlil), sublimation (al-tas'id), amalgamation (al-talghim), ceration (al-tashmi), and a method of converting a substance into a thick paste or fusible solid.^[32]
  Other chemical processes introduced by Muslim chemists include:
  • Assation (or roasting), cocotion (or digestion), amalgamation, ceration, lavage, solution, mixture, and fixation.^[35]
  • Destructive distillation was invented by Muslim chemists in the 8th century to produce tar from petroleum.^[35]
  • Steam distillation was invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils.^[35]
  • Water purification
  Ahmad Y Hassan wrote:

  Laboratory apparatus

  • Alembic and still by Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) in the 9th century.^[36]
  • Retort by Jabir ibn Hayyan.^[37]
  • Thermometer and air thermometer by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century.^[38]
  • Conical measure by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī in the 11th century.^[39][40]
  • Laboratory flask and pycnometer by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī.^[40]
  • Hydrostatic balance and steelyard by al-Khazini in 1121.^[40]
  • Muslim chemists and engineers invented the cucurbit and aludel, and the equipment needed for melting metals such as furnaces and crucibles.^[6]
  • Al-Razi (Rhazes), in his Secretum secretorum (Latinized title), first described the following tools for melting substances (li-tadhwib): hearth (kur), bellows (minfakh aw ziqq), crucible (bawtaqa), the but bar but (in Arabic) or botus barbatus (in Latin), tongs (masik aq kalbatan), scissors (miqta), hammer (mukassir), file (mibrad).^[32]
  • Al-Razi also first described the following tools for the preparation of drugs (li-tadbir al-aqaqir): cucurbit and still with evacuation tube (qar aq anbiq dhu-khatm), receiving matras (qabila), blind still (without evacuation tube) (al-anbiq al-ama), aludel (al-uthal), goblets (qadah), flasks (qarura or quwarir), rosewater flasks (ma wariyya), cauldron (marjal aw tanjir), earthenware pots varnished on the inside with their lids (qudur aq tanjir), water bath or sand bath (qadr), oven (al-tannur in Arabic, athanor in Latin), small cylindirical oven for heating aludel (mustawqid), funnels, sieves, filters, etc.^[32]

  Chemical industries

  Chemical substances invented by Muslims for use in the chemical industries include:
  • Sulfuric acid, originally coined as oil of vitriol when it was discovered by Jabir ibn Hayyan.^[42]
  • The mineral acids: nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid, by Geber.^[6]
  • Pure distilled alcohol (ethanol) by Jabir ibn Hayyan in the 8th century.^[43]
  • Uric acid and nitric acid by Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) in the 8th century.^[31]
  • Lustreware, by Geber in the 8th century.^[44]
  • Artificial pearl, purified pearl, dyed pearl, dyed gemstones, cheese glue, and plated mail, by Geber.^[45]
  • Kerosene and kerosene lamp by al-Razi in the 9th century.^[46]
  • Petrol by Muslim chemists.^[47]
  • Tar in the 8th century, and Naphtha in the 9th century.^[35]
  • Medicinal alcohol in the 10th century.^[35]
  • Essential oil by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century.^[35]
  • Hygienic cosmetics by Muslim chemists.^[50]
  • Dyestuff by Muslim chemists.^[51]
  • Arsenic, alkali, alkali salt, rice vinegar, boraxes, potassium nitrate, sulfur and purified sal ammoniac by Geber.^[6]
  • Sal nitrum and vitriol by al-Razi.^[6]
  • Ethanol, sulfuric acid, ammonia, mercury, camphor, pomades, and syrups.^[6]
  • Lead carbonatic, arsenic, and antimony.^[52]
  • Nitric and sulfuric acids, alkali, the salts of mercury, antimony, and bismuth.^[32]
  • Aqua regia, alum, sal ammoniac, stones, sulfur, salts, and spirits of mercury.^[6]
  • At least 2,000 medicinal substances.^[31]
  • The classification of all seven classical metals: gold, silver, tin, lead, mercury, iron, and copper, by Geber.^[6]
  Will Durant wrote in The Story of Civilization IV: The Age of Faith:
  
  Robert Briffault wrote in The Making of Humanity:

  Drinking industry

  • Coffee by Khalid in Kaffa, Ethiopia.^[31]
  • Distilled water and purified water by Muslim chemists.^[51]
  • Purified distilled alcohol by Jabir ibn Hayyan in the 8th century.^[43]
  • Sherbet and sharab, the first juiced carbonated soft drinks.^[55]
  • Recipes for drink syrups that can be kept outside the refrigerator for weeks or months.^[55]

  Glass industry

  • Artificial gemstone produced from high quality coloured glass, by Geber (d. 815).^[56]
  • Stained glass, by Muslim architects in Southwest Asia.
  • Quartz glass, by Abbas Ibn Firnas in the 9th century.^[57]
    • Clear, colourless, high-purity glass, by Muslims in the 9th century.^[56]
    • Refracting parabolic mirror, by Ibn Sahl in the 10th century.^[58]

    Hygiene industries

    • True soap, made of vegetable oils (such as olive oil) with sodium hydroxide and aromatics (such as thyme oil), invented by al-Razi (Rhazes).^[31]
    • Soap bar by al-Razi (Rhazes).^[31][6]
    • Sodium Lye (Al-Soda Al-Kawia), perfumed and colored soaps, and liquid and solid soaps by Muslim chemists.^[50]
    • Recipes for soaps, such as ones made from sesame oil, potash, alkali, lime, and molds, leaving hard soap (soap bar).^[50]
    • Shampoo by the Bengali Muslim Sake Dean Mahomet in 1759.^[31]

    Perfumery industry

    

    Al-Kindi invented a wide variety of scent and perfume products, and is considered the father of the perfume industry.
    • Perfume usage recorded in 7th century Arabian Peninsula.
    • Perfume industry established by Geber (Jabir) (b. 722, Iraq) and al-Kindi (b. 801, Iraq).^[31]
    • Jabir developed many techniques, including distillation, evaporation and filtration, which enabled the collection of the odour of plants into a vapour that could be collected in the form of water or oil.^[58]
    • Al-Kindi carried out extensive research and experiments in combining various plants and other sources to produce a variety of scent products.
    • Al-Kindi elaborated a vast number of recipes for a wide range of perfumes, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.
    • The preparation of a perfume called ghaliya, which contained musk, amber and other ingredients, and the use of various drugs and apparatus, by al-Kindi.
    • Extraction of fragrances through steam distillation by Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) in the 11th century.
    • Introduction of new raw ingredients in perfumery.
    • Perfumery produced from different spices, herbals, and other fragrance materials.
    • Introduction of jasmine from South and Southeast Asia, and citrus fruits from East Asia in modern perfumery.
    • Cheap mass production of incenses.
    • Musk and floral perfumes in the 11th-12th century Arabian Peninsula.^[51]

    Civil engineering

    Bridge dam

    The bridge dam was used to power a water wheel working a water-raising mechanism. The first was built in Dezful, Iran, which could raise 50 cubits of water for the water supply to all houses in the town. Similar bridge dams later appeared in other parts of the Islamic world.^[60]

    Cobwork

    Cobwork (tabya) first appeared in the Maghreb and al-Andalus in the 11th century and was first described in detail by Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century, who regarded it as a characteristically Muslim practice. Cobwork later spread to other parts of Europe from the 12th century onwards.^[61]

    Diversion dam

    The first diversion dam was built by medieval Muslim engineers over the River Uzaym in Jabal Hamrin, Iraq. Many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world.^[60]

    Milling dam

    The milling dam was used to provide additional power for milling, which Muslim engineers called the Pul-i-Bulaiti. The first was built at Shustar on the River Karun, Iran, and many of these were later built in other parts of the Islamic world.^[60]

    Clock technology

    Astronomical clocks

    Muslim astronomers and engineers constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories.^[35]
    • In the 10th century, al-Sufi first described over 1000 different uses of an astrolabe, including timekeeping and Salah.^[6]
    • Mechanical lunisolar calendar computer with gear train and gear-wheels by Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī.^[7]
    • Mechanical astrolabe with calendar computer and gear-wheels by Abi Bakr of Isfahan in 1235.^[9]
    • The Quadrans Vetus, a universal horary quadrant which could be used for any latitude and at any time of the year to determine the time, as well as the times of Salah, invented by al-Khwarizmi in 9th century Baghdad. This was the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the Middle Ages after the astrolabe.^[18]
    • Al-Jazari invented monumental water-powered astronomical clocks which displayed moving models of the Sun, Moon, and stars. His largest astronomical clock displayed the zodiac and the solar and lunar orbits. Another innovative feature of the clock was a pointer which travelled across the top of a gateway and caused automatic doors to open every hour.^[18]

    Candle clocks

    Al-Jazari described the most sophisticated candle clocks known to date. These clocks were designed using a large candle of uniform weight and cross section, whose rate of burning was known, which was placed in a metal sheath with a fitted cap. The bottom of the candle rested on a shallow dish that had a ring on its side connected through pulleys to a counterweight. As the candle burned away, the weight pushed it upward at a constant speed, while an automaton was operated from the dish at the bottom of the candle.^[61]

    Dials

    • Universal sundials for all latitudes used for timekeeping and for the determination of the times of Salah in 9th century Baghdad.^[63]
    • The Navicula de Venetiis, a universal horary dial used for accurate timekeeping by the Sun and Stars, and could be observed from any latitude, invented in 9th century Baghdad.^[64] This was later considered the most sophisticated timekeeping instrument of the Renaissance.^[64]
    • The compass dial, a timekeeping device incorporating both a universal sundial and a magnetic compass, invented by Ibn al-Shatir in the 13th century.^[65]

    Elephant clock with automaton, regulator, and closed loop

    Main article: Elephant clock

    The elephant clock described by al-Jazari in 1206 is notable for several innovations. It was the first clock in which an automaton reacted after certain intervals of time (in this case, a humanoid robot striking the cymbal and a mechanical bird chirping), the first mechanism to employ a flow regulator, and the earliest example of a closed-loop system in a mechanism.^[66]
    
    The float regulator employed in the clock later had an important influence during the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century, when it was employed in the boiler of a steam engine and in domestic water systems.^[6]

    Mechanical clocks

    The first mechanical clocks driven by weights and gears were invented by Muslim engineers.^[6][6] The first geared mechanical clocks were invented by the 11th century Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi from Islamic Spain. He employed gear trains with the earliest segmental and epicyclic gears used to transmit high torque in his mechanical clock. The first weight-driven mechanical clocks, employing a mercury escapement mechanism and a clock face similar to an astrolabe dial, were first invented by Muslim engineers in the 11th century. A similar weight-driven mechanical clock later appeared in a Spanish language work compiled from earlier Arabic sources for Alfonso X in 1277.^[6] The knowledge of weight-driven mechanical clocks produced by Muslim engineers in Spain was transmitted to other parts of Europe through Latin translations of Arabic and Spanish texts on Muslim mechanical technology.^[35]
    
    Al-Jazari invented some of the earliest mechanical clocks driven by both water and weights, including a water-powered scribe clock. This water powered portable clock was a meter high and half a meter wide. The scribe with his pen was synonymous to the hour hand of a modern clock. This is an example of an ingenious water system by al-Jazari.^[68][69] Al-Jazari's famous water-powered scribe clock was reconstructed successfully at the Science Museum (London) in 1976.

    Striking clock

    According to a 1202 manuscript written by Ridhwan al-Sa’ati, Abu 'Abdullah Muhammad b. Naser b. Saghir b. Khalid al-Kaysarani contructed the first striking clock in 1154 as part of a clock tower, similar to the Big Ben, near the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria.^[70]

    Watch

    According to Will Durant, Abbas Ibn Firnas invented a watch-like device in the 9th century which kept accurate time.^[35]

    Water clocks

    While simple water clocks were known since ancient China and India, Muslim engineers desgined complex water clocks with the a variety of innovations. One example is the 11th century Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi from Islamic Spain, who invented the first water clocks to be powered by water wheels, as well as water clocks run by both water power and gear trains.^[6]
    
    Al-Jazari invented water clocks which employed automata to mark the passage of time, including mechanical birds which discharge pellets from their beaks onto cymbals, doors which opened to reveal humanoid robots, rotating Zodiac circles, humanoid robot musicians who strike drums or play trumpets, etc. He introduced pulley systems and tripping mechanisms as means of transmitting power from the prime movers to the automata.^[61]
    
    The largest of his water clocks had a working clock face that was 11 feet high and 4.5 feet wide, and a drive which came from the steady descent of a heavy float in a circular reservoir. He introduced the use of a float chamber and the method of feedback control in order to maintain a constant outflow from the reservoir. Another innovative feature of the clock was how it recorded the passage of temporal hours, which meant that the rate of flow had to be changed daily to match the uneven length of days throughout the year. This was achieved with the use of a pipe leading from the float chamber into a flow regulator which was accurately calibrated using trial and error methods.^[61]
    
    Al-Jazari invented another type of clock which incorporated a closed-loop system, where the clock worked as long as it was loaded with metal balls with which to strike a gong.^[61] Al-Jazari also invented water clocks with oil lamps and automatic clocks.^[30]

    Mechanical technology

    

    Diagram of a water device from a book by Al-Jazari.

    Agricultural devices

    The early Muslim Arab Empire was ahead of its time regarding domestic water systems such as water cleaning systems and advanced water transportation systems resulting in better agriculture, something that helped in issues related to Islamic hygienical jurisprudence.^[71]
    
    Al-Jazari invented a variety of machines for raising water in 1206,^[71] as well as water mills and water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata in the 12th century.^[68]

    Artificial weather simulation

    Abbas Ibn Firnas invented an artificial weather simulation room, in which spectators saw stars and clouds, and were astonished by artificial thunder and lightning. These were due to mechanisms hidden in the basement.^[28]

    Complex segmental and epicyclic gears

    Segmental gears ("a piece for receiving or communicating reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a circular gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery, or face."^[72]) and epicyclic gears were both first invented by the 11th century Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi from Islamic Spain. He employed both these types of gears in the gear trains of his mechanical clocks. Simple gears have been known before him, but this was the the first known case of complex gears used to transmit high torque.^[6]
    
    Segmental gears were also later employed by al-Jazari in 1206. Professor Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote:

    Crank and connecting rod

    Al-Jazari's invention of the crankshaft (and the crank mechanism) is considered the most important single mechanical invention after the wheel, as it transforms continuous rotary motion into a linear reciprocating motion,^[6] which is central to much of the machinery in the modern world, including the internal combustion engine^[31] and steam engine.^[73]
    
    The connecting rod was also invented by al-Jazari, and was used in a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine he developed in 1206, in two of his water raising machines.^[72]

    Flywheel-driven chain pump and noria

    A flywheel is used to smooth out the delivery of power from a driving device to a driven machine. The mechanical flywheel was first invented by Ibn Bassal (fl. 1038-1075) of Islamic Spain, who pioneered the use of the flywheel in the chain pump (saqiya) and noria.^[75]

    Gristmill

    The first gristmills were invented by Muslim engineers in the Islamic world, and were used for grinding corn and other seeds to produce meals, and many other industrial uses such as fulling cloth, husking rice, papermaking, pulping sugarcane, and crushing metalic ores before extraction. Gristmills in the Islamic world were often made from both watermills and windmills. In order to adapt water wheels for gristmilling purposes, cams were used for raising and releasing trip hammers to fall on a material.^[61]

    Hodometer

    Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented an early hodometer in the 11th century.^[76] This was an early example of a fixed-wired knowledge processing machine.^[8]

    Industrial mills

    Further information: Islamic Golden Age - Industry

    
    
    A variety of industrial mills were first invented in the Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia.^[77]
    
    These advances made it possible for many industrial operations that were previously driven by manual labour in ancient times to be driven by machinery instead in the Islamic world. The transfer of these technologies to medieval Europe later laid the foundations for the Industrial Revolution in 18th century Europe.^[78]

    Metronome

    Lynn Townsend White, Jr. wrote that Abbas Ibn Firnas was the inventor of an early metronome.^[57]

    Non-wooden block printing

    Printing was known as tarsh in Arabic. After woodblock printing appeared in the Islamic world, either invented independently or adopted from China, a unique variety of non-wooden block printing were invented in Islamic Egypt during the 9th-10th centuries, including print blocks made from metal, tin, stone, glass, clay, lead, and cast iron. The first printed amulets were also invented in the Islamic world, and were printed with Arabic calligraphy. Non-wooden block printing was unknown in China or Europe at the time, though it is likely that woodblock printing was transmitted to Europe from the Islamic world. Block printing later went out of use in Islamic Central Asia after movable type printing was adopted from China.^[79] Movable brass type printing also appeared in Islamic Spain by the 14th century.^[35]

    On/off switch

    The on/off switch, an important feedback control principle, was invented by Muslim engineers between the 9th and 12th centuries, and it was employed in a variety of automata and water clocks. The mechanism later had an influence on the development of the electric on/off switch which appeared in the 1950s.^[80]

    Paper mill

    Paper was introduced into the Muslim world by Chinese prisoners after the Battle of Talas. Muslims made several improvements to papermaking and built the first paper mills in Baghdad, Iraq, as early as 794. Papermaking was transformed from an art into a major industry as a result.^[81]
    
    
    

    The programmable humanoid robots of al-Jazari, the "father of robotics".

    Programmable humanoid robot

    Ibn Ismail Ibn al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (1136-1206) created the first recorded designs of a programmable humanoid robot in 1206. Al-Jazari's robot was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bump into little levers that operate the percussion. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.^[82]

    Singing birds

    Caliph al-Mamun had a silver and golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 827, which had the features of an automatic machine. There were metal birds that sang automatically on the swinging branches of this tree built by Muslim engineers at the time.^[30][83]
    
    The Abbasid Caliph al-Muktadir also had a golden tree in his palace in Baghdad in 915, with birds on it flapping their wings and singing.^[30][84]

    Steam turbine

    In 1551, the Egyptian engineer Taqi al-Din described the first practical steam turbine as a prime mover for rotating a spit. In his book, Al-Turuq al-saniyya fi al-alat al-ruhaniyya (The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines), completed in 1551 AD (959 AH), Taqi al-Din wrote:^[85]

    Valve-operated double-action reciprocating suction piston pump

    
    
    In 1206, al-Jazari demonstrates the first conversion of rotary to reciprocating motion, the first suction pipes and suction piston pump, the first use of double-action, and one of the earliest valve operations, when he invented a two-cylinder double-action reciprocating suction piston pump, which seems to have had a direct significance in the development of modern engineering. This pump is driven by a water wheel, which drives, through a system of gears, an oscillating slot-rod to which the rods of two pistons are attached. The pistons work in horizontally opposed cylinders, each provided with valve-operated suction and delivery pipes. The delivery pipes are joined above the centre of the machine to form a single outlet into the irrigation system. This pump is remarkable for three reasons:^[86]
    1. The earliest known use of a true suction pipe in a pump
    2. The first application of the double-acting principle
    3. The first conversion of rotary to reciprocating motion
    
    
    For these reasons, this invention is considered important to the development of the steam engine, modern reciprocating pumps,^[86] internal combustion engine,^[87] artificial heart,^[88] bicycle, bicycle pump, etc.^[89]

    Ventillator

    Ventilators were invented in Egypt and were widely used in many houses throughout Cairo during the Middle Ages. These ventillators were later described in detail by Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi in 1200, who reported that almost every house in Cairo has a ventillator, and that they cost anywhere from 1 to 500 dinars depending on their sizes and shapes. Most ventillators in the city were oriented towards the Qibla, as was the city in general.^[90]

    Windmill

    Windmills were first built in Sistan, Afghanistan, sometime between the 7th century and 9th century, as described by Muslim geographers. These were verticle axle windmills, which had long vertical shafts with rectangle shaped blades.^[91] The first windmill may have been contructed as early as the time of the second Rashidun caliph Umar (634-644 AD), though some argue that this account may have been a 10th century amendment.^[92] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind corn and draw up water, and used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.^[61]

    Water turbine

    The first water turbine, which had water wheels with curved blades onto which water flow was directed axially, was first described in a 9th century Arabic text for use in a watermill.^[61]

    Other mechanical devices

    

    Drawing of the self-trimming lamp in Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir's Arabic treatise on mechanical devices.
    
    
    In the 9th century, the Banū Mūsā brothers invented a number of automata (automatic machines) and mechanical devices, and they described a hundred such devices in their Book of Ingenious Devices. Some of these inventions include:
    • Valve^[61][93]
    • Float valve^[93]
    • Feedback controller^[93]
    • Automatic control^[6]
    • Float chamber^[6]
    • Automatic flute player^[94]
    • Programmable machine^[94]
    • Trick devices^[61]
    • Hurricane lamp^[61]
    • Self-trimming lamp^[61] (Ahmad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir)
    • Self-feeding lamp^[61]
    • Gas mask^[61]
    • Grab^[61]
    • Clamshell grab^[61]
    • Fail-safe system^[61]
    In 1206, al-Jazari, along with his inventions above, also designed and constructed a number of other automata, such as home appliances and musical automata powered by water (see one of his works at The Automata of Al-Jazari). Al-Jazari also invented water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata.^[68]
    
    Al-Jazari described over fifty mechanical devices in six different categories, most of which he invented himself, along with construction drawings. Along with his inventions above, some of the other mechanival devices he first described include:^{[71][68][30][96][97]}
    • Combination locks
    • Hand washing device
    • Accurate calibration of orifices
    • Lamination of timber to reduce warping
    • Static balancing of wheels
    • Use of paper models to establish a design
    • Casting of metals in closed mould boxes with green sand
    • Trick drinking vessels
    • Phlebotomy measures
    • Linkage
    • Hydraulic devices
    • Water wheels with cams on their axle used to operate automata
    • Water pumps
    • Water level
    • Constructions of pots and pans for wine making
    • Construction of ewers and bowls for use as cups
    • Pools and fountains
    • Devices able to elevate water from shallow wells or flowing rivers
    • Several musical instruments
    • Other machines working by water
    • Other sundry mechanisms
    A number of other surviving manuscripts on mechanics and automatic machine construction are available in manuscript libraries in Istanbul, though many have not yet been read.

    Medical technology

    Main article: Islamic medicine

    Medical treatments

    

    Avicenna, considered the father of modern medicine and the father of momentum, described various anesthetics and medical and therapeutic drugs in his Canon of Medicine.
    
    
    Muslim physicians pioneered a number of medical treatments, including:
    • Plaster by Abu al-Qasim (Abucasis) in 1000.^[98]
    • Tracheotomy by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in the 12th century.^[98]
    • The medical procedure of inoculation in the medieval Muslim world, later followed by the first smallpox vaccine in the form of cowpox, invented in Turkey in the early 18th century.^[31]
    • At least 2,000 medicinal substances.^[31]
    Other medical treatments developed by Muslim physicians include:^[35]
    • Modern oral and inhalant anesthesia by Muslim anesthesiologists.
    • Surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face, by Abu al-Qasim and Ibn Zuhr in Islamic Spain.
    • Medical and anesthetic use of Opium by Avicenna.
    • Mercurial compounds as topical antiseptics by al-Razi (10th century).
    • Application of purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent by Muslim physicians and surgeons in the 10th century.
    • Utilization of special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior to and during surgery by surgeons in Islamic Spain.
    • Specific protocols for maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period, in Córdoba, Spain.
    • Drug therapy and medicinal drugs for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases, and the use of practical experience and careful observation, by al-Razi, Avicenna, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, Abu al-Qasim, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn al-Nafis, Al-Biruni, Ibn Sahl.
    • The word "drug" is derived from Arabic.
    • Chemotherapeutical drugs in the Muslim world.
    • Specific substances to destroy microbes, and the application of sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies mite.
    • Medicinal-grade alcohol through distillation, and the first distillation devices for use in chemistry manufactured on a large scale, in the 10th century.
    • Alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic.

    Surgical instruments

    

    Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis), the "father of modern surgery", performed surgeries under inhalant anesthesia, and invented the plaster and many surgical instruments.
    
    
    A wide variety of surgical instruments and techniques were invented in the Muslim world, as well as the refinement of earlier instruments and techniques. The following instruments are known to have been invented by Muslim surgeons:
    • Injection syringe by the Iraqi surgeon, Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili, in the 9th century, using a hollow glass tube and suction to extract and remove cataracts from patients' eyes.
    • Over 200 surgical instruments were listed by Abu al-Qasim (Abulcasis) in the Al-Tasrif (1000), many of which were never used before by any previous surgeons. Hamidan, for example, listed at least twenty six innovative surgical instruments that Abulcasis introduced.
    • Use of catgut for internal stitching, by Abu al-Qasim.
    • Forceps by Abu al-Qasim in the Al-Tasrif (1000), for extracting a dead fetus.^[99]
    • Ligature, by Abu al-Qasim in the Al-Tasrif, for the arteries in lieu of cauterization.
    • Surgical needle by Abu al-Qasim in his Al-Tasrif.^[98]
    • Scalpel, curette, retractor, surgical spoon, sound, surgical hook, surgical rod, and specula, by Abu al-Qasim in his Al-Tasrif (1000).^[101]
    • Bone saw by Abu al-Qasim.^[31]

    Military technology

    Further information: Alchemy (Islam) - Gunpowder compositions

    
    
    After the spread of early gunpowder from China to the Muslim world, Muslim chemists and engineers developed compositions for explosive gunpowder (naft in Arabic) and their own weapons for use in gunpowder warfare.

    Purified potassium nitrate

    Muslim chemists were the first to purify potassium nitrate (saltpetre; natrun or barud in Arabic) to the weapons-grade purity for use in gunpowder, as potassium nitrate needs to be purified to be used effectively. This purification process was first described by Ibn Bakhtawayh in his al-Muqaddimat in 1029. The first complete purification process for potassium nitrate is described in 1270 by the Arab chemist and engineer Hasan al-Rammah of Syria in his book al-Furusiyya wa al-Manasib al-Harbiyya (The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices). He first described the use of potassium carbonate (in the form of wood ashes) to remove calcium and magnesium salts from the potassium nitrate.^[102][103]

    Explosive gunpowder

    The ideal composition for explosive gunpowder used in modern times is 75% potassium nitrate (saltpetre), 10% sulfur, and 15% carbon. Several almost identical compositions were first described by the Arab engineer Hasan al-Rammah as a recipe for the rockets (tayyar) he described in The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices in 1270. Several examples include a tayyar "rocket" (75% saltpetre, 8% sulfur, 15% carbon) and the tayyar buruq "lightning rocket" (74% saltpetre, 10% sulfur, 15% carbon). He states in his book that many of these recipes were known to his father and grandfather, hence dating back to at least the late 12th century. Compositions for an explosive gunpowder effect were not known in China or Europe until the 14th century.^[103][43]
    
    Medieval French reports suggest that Muslim armies also used explosives against the Sixth Crusade army led by Ludwig IV, Landgrave of Thuringia in the 13th century.^[30]

    Hand cannon, handgun, and portable firearm

    The first portable hand cannons (midfa) loaded with explosive gunpowder, the first example of a handgun and portable firearm, were used by the Egyptians to repel the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, and again in 1304. The gunpowder compositions used for the cannons at these battles were later described in several manuscripts in the early 14th century. According to Shams al-Din Muhammad (d. 1327), the cannons had an explosive gunpowder composition (74% saltpetre, 11% sulfur, 15% carbon) again almost identical to the ideal compositions for explosive gunpowder used in modern times.^[103]
    
    According to research by Reinuad and Fave, the first firearms may have been developed even earlier by Muslims.^[35] In the 12th century, a primitive gun that shoots bullets, and later the Anatolian Turkish Beyliks using guns firing bullets using springs and which are audible, show that guns may have been used even earlier by Muslims in a more primitive form.
    
    Later, the Nesri Tarihi in the 15th century states that the Ottoman army were regularly using guns and cannons from at least 1421-1422.^[30] The famous Janissary corps of the Ottoman army were using matchlock muskets as early as the 1440s.^[104]

    Fireproof clothing and dissolved talc

    Egyptian soldiers at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 were the first to wear fireproof clothing and the first to smear dissolved talc on their hands, as forms of fire protection from gunpowder.^[103]

    Gunpowder cartridge

    Gunpowder cartridges were first employed by the Egyptians, for use in their fire lances and hand cannons against the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.^[103]

    Siege cannon

    The use of cannons as siege machines dates back to Abu Yaqub Yusuf who employed them at the siege of Sijilmasa in 1274 according to Ibn Khaldun.^[103]

    Ballistic war machine

    In the 12th century, the Seljuqs had facilities in Sivas for manufacturing war machines. Ballistic weapons were manufactured in the Muslim world since the time of Kublai Khan in the 13th century. According to Chinese sources, two Muslim engineers, Alaaddin and Ismail (d. 1330), built machines of a ballistic-weapons nature before the besieged city of Hang-show between 1271-1273. Alaaddin's weapons also played a major role in the conquest of several other Chinese cities. His son Ma-ho-scha also developed ballistic weapons. Ismail (transliterated as I-ssu-ma-yin) was present in the Mongol siege of Hsiang-yiang, where he built a war machine with the characteristics of a ballistic weapon. Chinese sources mention that when this war machines were fired, the earth and skies shook, the cannons were buried seven feet into the ground and destroyed everything. His son Yakub also developed ballistic war machines.^[30]

    Gunpowdered counterweight trebuchet

    Ala'eddin is honoured in the official history of China's Yuan Dynasty, for having constructed the counterweight trebuchet used with gunpowder for Kublai Khan.^[105]

    Torpedo

    After the spread of rocket technology from China, this was followed by the invention of torpedoes in the Muslim world, and were driven by a rocket system. The works of Hasan al-Rammah in Syria in 1275 shows illustrations of a torpedo running with a rocket system filled with explosive materials and having three firing points.^[30]

    Iron rocket artillery

    

    Tipu Sultan invented the first iron rocket artillery in Mysore, India.
    The first iron rocket artillery were developed by Tipu Sultan, a Muslim ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore. He successfully used these iron rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.^[106]

    Other weapons

    Jean Mathes wrote that Muslim rulers had stockpiles of grenades, rifles, crude cannons, incendiary devices, sulfur bombs and pistols decades before such devices were used in Europe.^[35]
    
    A 1356 copy of Alaaddin Tayboga al-Omari al-Saki al-Meliki al-Nasir's Kitab al-hiyal fi'l-hurub ve fath almada'in hifz al-durub contains descriptions on rockets, bombs, and burning fire arrows.^[30][107]

    Navigational technology

    Further information: Islamic Golden Age - Age of discovery

    Caravel

    The origins of the caravel ship, used for long distance travel by the Spanish and Portuguese since the 15th century, date back to the qarib used by explorers from Islamic Spain in the 13th century.^[108]

    Cartographic instruments

    • Cartographic grids in 10th century Baghdad.^[64]
    • Cartographic Qibla instruments, which were brass instruments with Mecca-centred world maps and cartographic grids engraved on them in the 17th century.^[64]
    • Cartographic Qibla instrument with a sundial and compass attached to it,^[110] by Muhammad Husayn in the 17th century.^[111]

    Compass rose

    The Arabs invented the 32-point compass rose during the Middle Ages.^[112]

    Kamal

    Muslim navigators invented a rudimentary sextant known as a kamal, used for celestial navigation and for measuring the altitudes and latitudes of the stars.

    Lateen

    Muslim sailors were responsible for introducing the lateen sails to the Mediterranean Sea.

    Shipmill

    The shipmill was a unique type of water mill powered by water wheels mounted on the sides of ships moored in midstream. This was first employed along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in 10th century Iraq, where shipmills could produce 10 tons of flour from corn every day for the granary in Baghdad.^[61]

    Three-masted merchant vessel

    Muslim sailors were responsible for introducing the large three-masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean Sea.

    Other inventions

    Fielding H. Garrison wrote in the History of Medicine:
    
    Other inventions from the Islamic world include:
    • Quilting, pointed arch, frequency analysis, cryptanalysis, three-course meal, glasses, Persian carpet, modern cheque, and royal pleasure gardens.^[31]
    • Homing pigeons (by Fatimid Caliph Aziz), how the eye works, 1000 year old recipes, rock crystals, musical instruments, musical theory, various fashions, Henna, Miswak, sea navigation techniques, and irrigation techniques.^{[66][66][117]}
    A significant number of other inventions and technological advances were made in the Muslim world, as well as adopting and improving technologies centuries before they were used in the West. For example, papermaking was adopted from China many centuries before it was known in the West.^[118] Iron was a vital industry in Muslim lands and was given importance in the Qur'an.^[119][120] The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China to Islamic countries, through which it was later passed to Europe.^[121] Knowledge of chemical processes (alchemy and chemistry) and distillation (alcohol) also spread to Europe from the Muslim world. Numerous contributions were made in laboratory practices such as "refined techniques of distillation, the preparation of medicines, and the production of salts."^[122] Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans.^[123]

    Explosive fireworks and firecrackers

    Fireworks and firecrackers, which may have been adopted from China, were first composed of explosive gunpowder compositions (around 75% saltpetre, 10% sulfur, and 15% carbon) in the Islamic world and were first described by Hasan al-Rammah of Syria in 1270.^[103]

    Fountain pen

    The earliest historical record of a a reservoir fountain pen dates back to the 10th century. In 953, Ma'ād al-Mu'izz, the caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib via gravity and capillary action.^[31][124]

    See also

    • Islamic science
    • Islamic Golden Age
    • Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world
    • Timeline of invention

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