Louis Pasteur
Information about Louis Pasteur
Louis Pasteur (December 27 1822 – September 28 1895) was a French chemist best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in microbiology. His experiments confirmed the germ theory of disease, also reducing mortality from puerperal fever (childbed), and he created the first vaccine for rabies. He is best known to the general public for showing how to stop milk and wine from going sour - this process came to be called pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch. He also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, most notably the asymmetry of crystals.
Upon examination of the minuscule crystals of Sodium ammonium tartrate, Pasteur noticed that the crystals came in two asymmetric forms that were mirror images of one another. Tediously sorting the crystals by hand gave two forms of the compound: solutions of one form rotated polarized light clockwise, while the other form rotated light counterclockwise. An equal mix of the two had no polarizing effect on light. Pasteur correctly deduced the molecule in question was asymmetric and could exist in two different forms that resemble one another as would left- and right-hand gloves, and that the organic form of the compound consisted purely of the one type. This was the first time anyone had demonstrated chiral molecules.
Pasteur's doctoral thesis on crystallography attracted the attention of M. Puillet and he helped Pasteur garner a position of professor of chemistry at the Faculté (College) of Strasbourg.
In 1854, he was named Dean of the new College of Science in Lille. In 1856, he was made administrator and director of scientific studies of the École Normale Supérieure.
He exposed boiled broths to air in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from passing through to the growth medium, and even in vessels with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a long tortuous tube that would not allow dust particles to pass. Nothing grew in the broths; therefore, the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. This was one of the last and most important experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous generation. The experiment also supported germ theory.
While Pasteur was not the first to propose germ theory (Girolamo Fracastoro, Agostino Bassi, Friedrich Henle and others had suggested it earlier), he developed it and conducted experiments that clearly indicated its correctness and managed to convince most of Europe it was true. Today he is often regarded as the father of germ theory and bacteriology, together with Robert Koch.
Pasteur's research also showed that some microorganisms contaminated fermenting beverages. With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to kill most bacteria and molds already present within them. He and Claude Bernard completed the first test on April 20, 1862. This process was soon afterwards known as pasteurisation (or "pasteurization" in America).
Beverage contamination led Pasteur to conclude that microorganisms infected animals and humans as well. He proposed preventing the entry of microorganisms into the human body, leading Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery.
In 1865, two parasitic diseases called pébrine and flacherie were killing great numbers of silkworms at Alès. Pasteur worked several years proving it was a microbe attacking silkworm eggs which caused the disease, and that eliminating this microbe within silkworm nurseries would eradicate the disease.
Pasteur also discovered anaerobiosis, whereby some microorganisms can develop and live without air or oxygen, called the Pasteur effect.
This discovery was serendipitous. His assistant Charles Chamberland (of French origin) had been instructed to inoculate the chickens after Pasteur went on holiday. Chamberland failed to do this, but instead went on holiday himself. On his return, the month old cultures made the chickens unwell, but instead of the infection being fatal, as it usually was, the chickens recovered completely. Chamberland assumed an error had been made, and wanted to discard the apparently faulty culture when Pasteur stopped him. Pasteur guessed the recovered animals now might be immune to the disease, as were the animals at Eure-et-Loir that had recovered from anthrax.
In the 1870s, he applied this immunisation method to anthrax, which affected cattle, and aroused interest in combating other diseases.
Pasteur publicly claimed he had made the anthrax vaccine by exposing the bacillus to oxygen. His laboratory notebooks, now in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, in fact show Pasteur used the method of rival Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint, a Toulouse veterinary surgeon, to create the anthrax vaccine.[1][2] This method used the oxidizing agent potassium dichromate. Pasteur's oxygen method did eventually produce a vaccine but only after he had been awarded a patent on the production of an anthrax vaccine.
The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for smallpox. Inoculation with smallpox was known to result in far less scarring, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison to the naturally acquired disease. Edward Jenner had also discovered vaccination, using cowpox to give cross-immunity to smallpox (in 1796), and by Pasteur's time this had generally replaced the use of actual smallpox material in inoculation. The difference between smallpox vaccination and cholera and anthrax vaccination was that the weakened form of the latter two disease organisms had been generated artificially, and so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found.
This discovery revolutionised work in infectious diseases, and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name of vaccines, to honour Jenner's discovery. Pasteur produced the first vaccine for rabies by growing the virus in rabbits, and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue.
The rabies vaccine was initially created by Emile Roux, a French doctor and a colleague of Pasteur who had been working with a killed vaccine produced by desiccating the spinal cords of infected rabbits. The vaccine had only been tested on eleven dogs before its first human trial.
This vaccine was first used on 9-year old Joseph Meister, on July 6, 1885, after the boy was badly mauled by a rabid dog. This was done at some personal risk for Pasteur, since he was not a licensed physician and could have faced prosecution for treating the boy. However, left without treatment, the boy faced almost certain death from rabies. After consulting with colleagues, Pasteur decided to go ahead with the treatment. The treatment proved to be a spectacular success, with Meister avoiding the disease; thus, Pasteur was hailed as a hero and the legal matter was not pursued. The treatment's success laid the foundations for the manufacture of many other vaccines. The first of the Pasteur Institutes was also built on the basis of this achievement.
Legal risk was not the only kind Pasteur undertook. In The Story of San Michele, Axel Munthe writes of the rabies vaccine research:
He was a Grand Croix of the Legion of Honor–one of only 75 in all of France.
He died in 1895, near Paris, from complications of a series of strokes that had started in 1868. He died while listening to the story of St Vincent de Paul, whom he admired and sought to emulate.[3] He was buried in the Cathedral of Notre Dame, but his remains were reinterred in a crypt in the Institut Pasteur, Paris where he is remembered for his life-saving work.
Both Institut Pasteur and Université Louis Pasteur were named after him.
Pasteur was ranked #12 in the 1978 edition of Michael H. Hart's controversial book, The 100: A Ranking Of The Most Influential Persons in History. However, Pasteur was promoted to no. 11, replacing Karl Marx in the 1992 revised edition of the book.
Early life and biography
Louis Jean Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822 in Dole in the Jura region of France and grew up in the town of Arbois. There he later had his house and laboratory, which is a Pasteur museum today. His father, Jean Pasteur, was a poorly educated tanner and a veteran of the Napoleonic wars. Louis's aptitude was recognized by his college headmaster, who recommended that the young man apply for the École Normale Supérieure, which accepted him. After serving briefly as professor of physics at Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at Strasbourg University, where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector in 1849. They were married on May 29, 1849 and together they had five children, only two of whom survived to adulthood. Throughout his whole life, Louis Pasteur remained an ardent Catholic. A well-known quotation illustrating this is attributed to him: "I have the faith of a Breton peasant, and by the time I die I hope to have the faith of a Breton peasant's wife."Work on chirality and the polarization of light
In Pasteur's early works as a chemist, he resolved a problem concerning the nature of tartaric acid (1849). A solution of this compound derived from living things (specifically, wine lees) rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it. The mystery was that tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis had no such effect, even though its chemical reactions were identical and its elemental composition was the same.Upon examination of the minuscule crystals of Sodium ammonium tartrate, Pasteur noticed that the crystals came in two asymmetric forms that were mirror images of one another. Tediously sorting the crystals by hand gave two forms of the compound: solutions of one form rotated polarized light clockwise, while the other form rotated light counterclockwise. An equal mix of the two had no polarizing effect on light. Pasteur correctly deduced the molecule in question was asymmetric and could exist in two different forms that resemble one another as would left- and right-hand gloves, and that the organic form of the compound consisted purely of the one type. This was the first time anyone had demonstrated chiral molecules.
Pasteur's doctoral thesis on crystallography attracted the attention of M. Puillet and he helped Pasteur garner a position of professor of chemistry at the Faculté (College) of Strasbourg.
In 1854, he was named Dean of the new College of Science in Lille. In 1856, he was made administrator and director of scientific studies of the École Normale Supérieure.
Germ theory
Louis Pasteur demonstrated that the fermentation process is caused by the growth of microorganisms, and that the growth of microorganisms in nutrient broths is not due to spontaneous generation.He exposed boiled broths to air in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from passing through to the growth medium, and even in vessels with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a long tortuous tube that would not allow dust particles to pass. Nothing grew in the broths; therefore, the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. This was one of the last and most important experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous generation. The experiment also supported germ theory.
While Pasteur was not the first to propose germ theory (Girolamo Fracastoro, Agostino Bassi, Friedrich Henle and others had suggested it earlier), he developed it and conducted experiments that clearly indicated its correctness and managed to convince most of Europe it was true. Today he is often regarded as the father of germ theory and bacteriology, together with Robert Koch.
Pasteur's research also showed that some microorganisms contaminated fermenting beverages. With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to kill most bacteria and molds already present within them. He and Claude Bernard completed the first test on April 20, 1862. This process was soon afterwards known as pasteurisation (or "pasteurization" in America).
Beverage contamination led Pasteur to conclude that microorganisms infected animals and humans as well. He proposed preventing the entry of microorganisms into the human body, leading Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery.
In 1865, two parasitic diseases called pébrine and flacherie were killing great numbers of silkworms at Alès. Pasteur worked several years proving it was a microbe attacking silkworm eggs which caused the disease, and that eliminating this microbe within silkworm nurseries would eradicate the disease.
Pasteur also discovered anaerobiosis, whereby some microorganisms can develop and live without air or oxygen, called the Pasteur effect.
Immunology and Vaccination
Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera. During this work, a culture of the responsible bacteria had spoiled and failed to induce the disease in some chickens he was infecting with the disease. Upon reusing these healthy chickens, Pasteur discovered that he could not infect them, even with fresh bacteria; the weakened bacteria had caused the chickens to become immune to the disease, even though they had only caused mild symptoms.This discovery was serendipitous. His assistant Charles Chamberland (of French origin) had been instructed to inoculate the chickens after Pasteur went on holiday. Chamberland failed to do this, but instead went on holiday himself. On his return, the month old cultures made the chickens unwell, but instead of the infection being fatal, as it usually was, the chickens recovered completely. Chamberland assumed an error had been made, and wanted to discard the apparently faulty culture when Pasteur stopped him. Pasteur guessed the recovered animals now might be immune to the disease, as were the animals at Eure-et-Loir that had recovered from anthrax.
In the 1870s, he applied this immunisation method to anthrax, which affected cattle, and aroused interest in combating other diseases.
)
Louis Pasteur in his laboratory, painting by A. Edelfeldt in 1885.
Pasteur publicly claimed he had made the anthrax vaccine by exposing the bacillus to oxygen. His laboratory notebooks, now in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, in fact show Pasteur used the method of rival Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint, a Toulouse veterinary surgeon, to create the anthrax vaccine.[1][2] This method used the oxidizing agent potassium dichromate. Pasteur's oxygen method did eventually produce a vaccine but only after he had been awarded a patent on the production of an anthrax vaccine.
The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for smallpox. Inoculation with smallpox was known to result in far less scarring, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison to the naturally acquired disease. Edward Jenner had also discovered vaccination, using cowpox to give cross-immunity to smallpox (in 1796), and by Pasteur's time this had generally replaced the use of actual smallpox material in inoculation. The difference between smallpox vaccination and cholera and anthrax vaccination was that the weakened form of the latter two disease organisms had been generated artificially, and so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found.
This discovery revolutionised work in infectious diseases, and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name of vaccines, to honour Jenner's discovery. Pasteur produced the first vaccine for rabies by growing the virus in rabbits, and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue.
The rabies vaccine was initially created by Emile Roux, a French doctor and a colleague of Pasteur who had been working with a killed vaccine produced by desiccating the spinal cords of infected rabbits. The vaccine had only been tested on eleven dogs before its first human trial.
This vaccine was first used on 9-year old Joseph Meister, on July 6, 1885, after the boy was badly mauled by a rabid dog. This was done at some personal risk for Pasteur, since he was not a licensed physician and could have faced prosecution for treating the boy. However, left without treatment, the boy faced almost certain death from rabies. After consulting with colleagues, Pasteur decided to go ahead with the treatment. The treatment proved to be a spectacular success, with Meister avoiding the disease; thus, Pasteur was hailed as a hero and the legal matter was not pursued. The treatment's success laid the foundations for the manufacture of many other vaccines. The first of the Pasteur Institutes was also built on the basis of this achievement.
Legal risk was not the only kind Pasteur undertook. In The Story of San Michele, Axel Munthe writes of the rabies vaccine research:
- Pasteur himself was absolutely fearless. Anxious to secure a sample of saliva straight from the jaws of a rabid dog, I once saw him with the glass tube held between his lips draw a few drops of the deadly saliva from the mouth of a rabid bull-dog, held on the table by two assistants, their hands protected by leather gloves.
Honors and final days
Pasteur won the Leeuwenhoek medal, microbiology's highest honor, in 1895.He was a Grand Croix of the Legion of Honor–one of only 75 in all of France.
He died in 1895, near Paris, from complications of a series of strokes that had started in 1868. He died while listening to the story of St Vincent de Paul, whom he admired and sought to emulate.[3] He was buried in the Cathedral of Notre Dame, but his remains were reinterred in a crypt in the Institut Pasteur, Paris where he is remembered for his life-saving work.
Both Institut Pasteur and Université Louis Pasteur were named after him.
Pasteur was ranked #12 in the 1978 edition of Michael H. Hart's controversial book, The 100: A Ranking Of The Most Influential Persons in History. However, Pasteur was promoted to no. 11, replacing Karl Marx in the 1992 revised edition of the book.
Statements
In his trumphal lecture at the Sorbonne in 1864 he said 'Never will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow struck by this simple experiment' [Sidney Fox, Klaus Dose,'Molecular Evolution and The Origin of Live, W.H Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 1972, page4.171.' Alexander I. Oparin, Origin of Live, Dover Publications, NewYork, 1936, 1953 (reprent), p. 196.]See also
- Pasteurization
- Pasteur effect
- Pasteur Institute¨
- Modern medicine
- Infectious disease
Notes
1. ^ Adrien Loir, A l'ombre de Pasteur, éd. Le mouvement sanitaire, 1938, pp. 18 and 160.
2. ^ Pasteur by David V. Cohn, Ph.D., Emeritus of Biochemistry, University of Louisville Prof Cohn says : "Fortunately, Pasteur's colleagues Chamberlain* and Roux followed up the results of a research physician Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint who reported a year earlier that carbolic-acid/heated anthrax serum would immunize against anthrax. These results were difficult to reproduce and discarded although, as it turned out, Toussaint was on the right track. This led Pasteur and his assistants to substitute an anthrax vaccine prepared not dissimilar to that of Toussaint and different that Pasteur had announced". - Please, read : "Chamberland" instead of "Chamberlain".
3. ^ Louis Pasteur - Catholic Encyclopedia
2. ^ Pasteur by David V. Cohn, Ph.D., Emeritus of Biochemistry, University of Louisville Prof Cohn says : "Fortunately, Pasteur's colleagues Chamberlain* and Roux followed up the results of a research physician Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint who reported a year earlier that carbolic-acid/heated anthrax serum would immunize against anthrax. These results were difficult to reproduce and discarded although, as it turned out, Toussaint was on the right track. This led Pasteur and his assistants to substitute an anthrax vaccine prepared not dissimilar to that of Toussaint and different that Pasteur had announced". - Please, read : "Chamberland" instead of "Chamberlain".
3. ^ Louis Pasteur - Catholic Encyclopedia
References
- Biographies:
- * Debré, P.; Forster, E.: Louis Pasteur. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998; ISBN 0-8018-5808-9. A biography in English.
- * Gerald L. Geison, The private science of Louis Pasteur, Princeton University Press, 1995 (ISBN 0-691-03442-7). A historical review of Pasteur's work.
- * Tiner, John Hudson : "Louis Pasteur: Founder of Modern Medicine". Mott Media, 1990; ISBN 0-88062-159-1 (paperback). A biography.
- Influence on medicine and society:
- * Latour, Bruno : "The Pasteurization of France". Harvard University Press, 1988; ISBN 0-674-65761-6 (paperback). A historical/sociological account.
External links
- AMBAFrance-ca.org - 'Louis Pasteur' (in English), Embassy of France in Canada
- Pasteur.fr - 'The Institut Pasteur: Foundation Dedicated to the prevention and treatment of diseases through biological research, education and public health activities' (in English)
- http://www.pasteurfoundation.org - 'The Pasteur Foundation: A US nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting the mission of the Institut Pasteur in Paris. Full archive of newsletters available online containing examples of US Tributes to Louis Pasteur.'
- Paper on the Germ Pasteur Theory, LSU (Louisiana State University) Law Center
- Pasteur.net - 'The Pasteur Galaxy: The Pasteur diaspora', Association of Pasteur Families
- Pasteur-Lille.fr - 'Une Recherche d'excellence en biologie et en santé au service de la population et de son environnement' (biography of Pasteur, in French), Pasteur Institute at Lille
- a modern history sourcebook: Pasteur
- "]". Catholic Encyclopedia. (1913). New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- LIFE top 100 events of the millennium: Germ theory of disease and Pasteur (number 6 in this particular list)
- Louis Pasteur @ About Biotech (where Pasteur is called the greatest benefactor of humanity)
- (French)
This is not an image, but rather a PDF file. - (French)
This is not an image, but rather a PDF file. - (French)
This is not an image, but rather a PDF file. - (French)
This is not an image, but rather a PDF file. - (French)
This is not an image, but rather a PDF file. - (French)
This is not an image, but rather a PDF file. - (French)
This is not an image, but rather a PDF file.
Different articles published by Pasteur can be free downloaded on site of BNF (Bibliothèque nationale de France, Gallica) in the differents books of « Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences » Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences (free downloaded).
Preceded by
Émile LittréSeat 17
Académie française
1881–1895Succeeded by
Gaston Paris
Persondata NAME Pasteur, Louis ALTERNATIVE NAMES SHORT DESCRIPTION French microbiologist and chemist DATE OF BIRTH 27 November 1822 PLACE OF BIRTH Dole, Jura, France DATE OF DEATH 28 September 1895 PLACE OF DEATH Saint-Cloud, Hauts-de-Seine, Dole December 27 is the 1st day of the year (2nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 0 days remaining.Events
- 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed.
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1819 1820 1821 - 1822 - 1823 1824 1825
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Subjects: Archaeology - Architecture -
..... Click the link for more information.September 28 is the 1st day of the year (2nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 0 days remaining.Events
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1892 1893 1894 - 1895 - 1896 1897 1898
:
Subjects: Archaeology - Architecture -
..... Click the link for more information.Motto
Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité
"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"
Anthem
"La Marseillaise"
..... Click the link for more information.chemist is a scientist trained in the science of chemistry. Chemists study the composition of matter and its small-scale properties such as density and acidity instead of large-scale properties like size and shape.
..... Click the link for more information.Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms.[1] This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes such as bacteria and certain algae.
..... Click the link for more information.The germ theory of disease, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a theory that proposes that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases. Although highly controversial when first proposed, it is now a cornerstone of modern medicine and clinical microbiology,
..... Click the link for more information.MeSH D011645 Puerperal fever (from the latin puer, child), also called childbed fever, can develop into puerperal sepsis, which is a serious form of septicaemia contracted by a woman during or shortly after childbirth or abortion.
..... Click the link for more information.A vaccine is an antigenic preparation used to establish immunity to a disease. The term derives from Edward Jenner's use of cowpox ("vacca" means cow in Latin), which, when administered to humans, provided them protection against smallpox, the work which Louis Pasteur and others
..... Click the link for more information.Rabies virus
Rabies
Classification & external resources
ICD-10 A 82. -
ICD-9 071
DiseasesDB 11148
MedlinePlus 001334
eMedicine med/1374 emerg/493 ped/1974
MeSH D011818
Rabies
..... Click the link for more information.Pasteurization (or pasteurisation) is the process of heating liquids for the purpose of destroying viruses and harmful organisms such as bacteria, protozoa, molds, and yeasts. The process was named after its inventor, French scientist Louis Pasteur.
..... Click the link for more information.Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms.[1] This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes such as bacteria and certain algae.
..... Click the link for more information.Ferdinand Julius Cohn (January 24, 1828 – June 25, 1898) was a German biologist.
Cohn was born in Breslau (Wrocław) in the Prussian Province of Silesia. At the age of 10 he suffered hearing impairment. He received a degree in botany in 1847 at the age of nineteen.
..... Click the link for more information.Robert Koch
Robert Koch
Born November 11 1843
Clausthal, Hanover
Died May 27 1910 (aged 68)
..... Click the link for more information.Asymmetry is the absence of, or a violation of, a symmetry.Asymmetry in organisms
Due to how cells divide in organisms, asymmetry in organisms is fairly usual in at least one dimension, with biological symmetry also being common in at least one dimension.
..... Click the link for more information.CRYSTAL is a quantum chemistry ab initio program, designed primarily for calculations on crystals (3 dimensions), slabs (2 dimensions) and polymers (1 dimension) using translational symmetry, but it can be used for single molecules.[1] It is written by V.R. Saunders, R.
..... Click the link for more information.December 27 is the 1st day of the year (2nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 0 days remaining.Events
- 537 - The Hagia Sophia is completed.
..... Click the link for more information.18th century - 19th century - 20th century
1790s 1800s 1810s - 1820s - 1830s 1840s 1850s
1819 1820 1821 - 1822 - 1823 1824 1825
:
Subjects: Archaeology - Architecture -
..... Click the link for more information.Dole is a commune in the Jura département in France, of which it is a sous-préfecture. Population (1999): 24,949. It is the largest commune in Jura, although the préfecture (capital) resides in the commune of Lons-le-Saunier.
..... Click the link for more information.Jura
Coat of arms of the Jura department
Location
Administration
Department number: 39
Region: Franche-Comté
Prefecture: Lons-le-Saunier
Subprefectures: Dole
Saint-Claude
..... Click the link for more information.Motto
Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité
"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"
Anthem
"La Marseillaise"
..... Click the link for more information.Commune of
Arbois
Château Pécauld in Arbois
Location
Longitude 5° 46' 29" E
Latitude 46° 45' 13" N
Administration
Country France
..... Click the link for more information.Tanning is the process of converting putrescible skin into non-putrescible leather, usually with tannin, an acidic chemical compound that prevents decomposition and often imparts color.
..... Click the link for more information.Top: Battle of Austerlitz
Bottom: Battle of Waterloo
Date c.1803–1815
Location Europe, Atlantic Ocean, Río de la Plata, Indian Ocean
Result Coalition victory, Congress of Vienna
Combatants
Austria[a]
Portugal
Prussia
..... Click the link for more information.head teacher, headmaster or headmistress (all often referred to simply as the head) is the most senior teacher in a school in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.
..... Click the link for more information.École normale supérieure (also known as Normale Sup', Normale, ENS, ENS-Paris, ENS-Ulm or Ulm) is a prestigious French grande école, possibly the most prestigious.
..... Click the link for more information.The meaning of the word professor (Latin: person who professes to be an expert in some art or science, teacher of highest rank[1]) varies. In most English-speaking countries, it refers to a senior academic who holds a departmental chair
..... Click the link for more information.Physics is the science of matter[1] and its motion[2][3], as well as space and time[4][5] —the science that deals with concepts such as force, energy, mass, and charge.
..... Click the link for more information.18th century - 19th century - 20th century
1810s 1820s 1830s - 1840s - 1850s 1860s 1870s
1845 1846 1847 - 1848 - 1849 1850 1851
:
Subjects: Archaeology - Architecture -
..... Click the link for more information.
- (French)
- (French)
- (French)
- (French)
- (French)
- (French)
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