The initial
Muslim conquests (632–732), also referred to as the
Islamic conquests or
Arab conquests,
[1] began after the death of the
Islamic prophet Muhammad. He established a new unified political polity in the
Arabian peninsula which under the subsequent
Rashidun and
Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of
Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula in the form of a vast
Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from northwest
India, across
Central Asia, the
Middle East,
North Africa, southern
Italy, and the
Iberian Peninsula, to the
Pyrenees.
Edward Gibbon writes in
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire:
History
The individual conquests, together with their beginning and ending dates, are as follows:
Byzantine-Arab Wars: 634-750
- :Further information: Khalid ibn al-Walid Amr ibn al-A'as
The Byzantine-Arab Wars were between the
Byzantine Empire and at first the
Rashidun and then the
Umayyad caliphates and resulted in the conquest of the
Bilad al-Sham (
Levant), Misr (
Aegyptus),
Ifriqiya (Mediterranean
North Africa) and
Armenia (
Byzantine Armenia and
Sassanid Armenia).
Under the Rashidun
Under the Umayyads
Later conquests
Frontier warfare continued in the form of cross border raids between the Ummayyads and the Byzantine Isaurian dynasty allied with the
Khazars across
Asia Minor. Byzantine naval dominance and
Greek fire resulted in a major victory at the
Battle of Akroinon (739); one of a series of military failures of the Caliph
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik across the empire that checked Umayyad expansion and hastened their fall.
Conquest of Persia: 633-651
- :Further information: Khalid ibn al-Walid
In the reign of
Yazdegerd III, the last
Sassanid ruler of the
Persian Empire, a Muslim army secured the conquest of Persia after their decisive defeats of the
Sassanid army at the
Battle of Walaja in 633 and Battle of al-Qādisiyyah in 636, but the final military victory didn't come until 642 when the Persian army was destroyed at the Battle of Nihawānd. Then, in 651, Yazdgird III was murdered at
Merv, ending the dynasty. His son
Pirooz escaped through the
Pamir Mountains in what is now
Tajikistan and arrived in
Tang China.
Conquest of Transoxiana: 662-709
- :Further information: Qutaibah bin Muslim History of Arabs in Afghanistan
Following the
First Fitna, the Umayyads resumed the push to capture
Sassanid lands and began to move towards the conquest of lands east and north of the
Iranian plateau towards
Khorasan and the
Silk route along
Transoxiana. Following the collapse of the Sassanids, these regions had fallen under the sway of local
Iranian and
Turkic tribes as well as the
Tang dynasty. By 709, however, all of
Greater Khorasan and
Sogdiana had come under Arab control. By 751, the Arabs had extended their influence further east to the borders of China, leading to the
Battle of Talas.
Conquest of Sindh: 664-712
- :Further information: Muhammad bin Qasim
During the period of early
Rajput supremacy in north
India, during the
seventh, the first Muslim invasions were carried out simultaneously with the expansion towards
Central Asia. In 664, forces led by
Mohalib began launching raids from Persia, striking
Multan in the southern
Punjab in what is today
Pakistan.
In 711, an expedition led by
Muhammad bin Qasim defeated
Raja Dahir at what is now
Hyderabad in
Sindh and established Umayyad rule by 712. Qasim subdued the whole of what is modern Pakistan, from Karachi to
Kashmir, reaching the borders of Kashmir within three years. After his recall, however, the region devolved into the semi-independent Arab ruled states of
Mansura and
Multan.
Conquest of Hispania: 711-718
- :Further information: Tariq ibn-Ziyad
The conquest of the
Iberian Peninsula commenced when the
Moors (mostly Berbers with some
Arabs) invaded
Visigothic Christian Iberia (modern
Spain,
Portugal,
Gibraltar,
Andorra) in the year 711. Under their Berber leader,
Tariq ibn Ziyad, they landed at Gibraltar on
April 30 and worked their way northward. Tariq's forces were joined the next year by those of his superior,
Musa ibn Nusair. During the eight-year campaign most of the
Iberian Peninsula was brought under
Islamic rule—save for small areas in the northwest (
Asturias) and largely
Basque regions in the
Pyrenees. This territory, under the Arab name
Al-Andalus, became first an
Emirate and then an independent
Umayyad Caliphate after the overthrowing of the dynasty in
Damascus by the
Abbasids. When the Caliphate dissolved in 1031, the territory split into small
Taifas, and gradually the Christian kingdoms started the
Reconquest up to 1492, when
Granada, the last kingdom of Al-Ándalus fell under the
Catholic Kings.
Conquest of the Caucasus: 711-750
End of the Umayyad conquests: 718-750
The success of the
Bulgarian Empire and the
Byzantine Empire in dispelling the
second Umayyad siege of Constantinople halted further conquests of
Asia Minor in 718. After their success in overrunning the
Iberian peninsula, the Umayyads had moved northeast over the
Pyrenees where they were defeated 721 at the
Battle of Toulouse and then at the
Battle of Covadonga. A second invasion was stopped by the
Frank Charles Martel at the
Battle of Tours in 732 and then at the
Battle of the River Berre checking the Umayyad expansion at
Narbonne. In 738, the Umayyad armies were defeated by the
Indian Rajputs at the
Battle of Rajasthan, checking the eastern expansion of the empire. In 740, the
Berber Revolt weakened Umayyad ability to launch any further expeditions and, after the
Abbasid overthrow in 756 at
Cordoba, a separate Arab state was established on the Iberian peninsula, even as the
Muhallabids were unable to keep
Ifriqiya from political fragmentation.
In the east, internal revolts and local dissent led to the downfall of the Umayyad dynasty. This military expansion era extended the military boundaries of the Islamic world in the pursuit of wealth garnered from booty. The
Khariji and
Zaidi revolts coupled with
mawali dissatisfaction as second class citizens in respect to Arabs created the support base necessary for the
Abbasid revolt in 750. The Abbasids were soon involved in numerous
Shia revolts and the breakaway of Ifrikiya from the Caliph's authority completely in the case of the
Idrisids and
Rustamids and nominally under the
Aghlabids, under whom muslim rule was extended temporarily to
Sicily and mainland
Italy before being overrun by the competing
Fatimids. The Abbasid caliph, even as he competed for authority with the Fatimid Caliph, also had to devolve greater power to the increasing power of regional rulers. This began the process of fragmentation that soon gave rise to numerous local ruling dynasties who would contend for territory with each other and eventually establish kingdoms and empires and push the boundaries of the
muslim world on their own authority, giving rise to
Mameluke and
Turkic dynasties such as the
Seljuks,
Khwarezmshahs and the
Ayyubids who fought the
crusades, as well as the
Ghaznavids and
Ghorids who conquered
India.
In Iberia, Charles Martel's son,
Pippin the Younger, retook Narbonne, and his grandson Charlemagne actually established the
Marca Hispanica across the Pyrenees in part of what today is Catalonia, reconquering Girona in 785 and Barcelona in 801. This formed a permanent buffer zone against Muslims, with Frankish strongholds in Iberia (the
Carolingian Empire Spanish Marches), which became the basis, along with the King of
Asturias for the
Reconquista, spanning 700 year which after the fall of the
Caliphate of Cordoba contested with both the successor
taifas as well as the African-based Muslim empires, such as the
Almoravids and
Almohads, until all of the Muslims were expelled from the Iberian peninsula.
Conquest of Nubia: 700-1606
After many attempts at military conquest of
Nubia (in the North of modern day
Sudan) failed, the Arab commander in Egypt concluded the first in a series of regularly renewed treaties known as AlBaqt (pactum) with the Nubians that governed relations between the two peoples for more than six hundred years.
Islam progressed peacefully in the area through intermarriage and contacts with Arab merchants and settlers over a long period of time after the failure of military conquest. In 1315, a Muslim prince of Nubian royal blood ascended the throne of
Dunqulah as king.
During the fifteenth century, the
Funj, an indigenous people appeared in southern Nubia and established the Kingdom of Sinnar, also known as As-Saltana az-Zarqa (the
Black Sultanate). The kingdom officially converted to Islam in 1523 and by 1606 it had supplanted the old Christian kingdom of
Alwa (
Alodia) and controlled an area spreading over the Northern and Central regions of modern day Sudan thereby becoming the first Islamic Kingdom in Sudan. Their kingdom lasted until 1821.
Conquest of Italy: 831-902
The
Aghlabids rulers of
Ifriqiya under the Abbasids, using present day
Tunisia as their launching pad conquered
Palermo in 831,
Messina in 842,
Enna in 859,
Syracuse in 878,
Catania in 900 and the final Byzantine stronghold, the fortress of
Taormina, in 902 setting up
emirates in the
Italian peninsula.
Berber and
Tulunid rebellions quickly led to the rise of the Fatimids taking over Aghalbid territory and
Calabria was soon lost to the Byzantine
Catapanate of Italy. The
Kalbid dynasty administered the
Emirate of Sicily for the Fatimids by proxy from 948. By 1053 the dynasty died out in a dynastic struggle and interference from the Berber
Zirids of Ifriqiya led to its break down into small fiefdoms which were captured by the
Italo-Normans by 1091.
Conquest of Anatolia: 1060-1360
The later
Abbasid period saw initial expansion and the capture of
Crete (840). The Abbasids soon shifted their attention towards the East. During the later fragmentation of the Abbasid rule and the rise of their
Shiite rivals the
Fatimids and
Buyids, a resurgent Byzantium recaptured
Crete and
Cilicia in 961,
Cyprus in 965, and pushed into the Levant by 975. The Byzantines successfully contested with the
Fatimids for influence in the region until the arrival of the
Seljuk Turks who first allied with the Abbasids and then ruled as the
de facto rulers.
In 1068
Alp Arslan and allied
Turkmen tribes recaptured many Abbasid lands and even invaded Byzantine regions, pushing further into eastern and central
Anatolia after a major victory at the
Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The disintegration of the Seljuk dynasty resulted in the rise of the
Turkic kingdoms such as the
Danishmends, the
Sultanate of Rum, and various
Atabegs who contested the control of the region during the
Crusades and incrementally expanded across Anatolia until the
rise of the Ottoman Empire.
Byzantine-Ottoman Wars: 1299-1453
Further conquests: 1200-1800
In
Sub-Saharan Africa, the
Sahelian kingdom expanded Muslim territories far from the coast. Muslim traders spread Islam to kingdoms across
Zanj along the east African coast, and to
Southeast Asia and the
sultanates of Southeast Asia such as those of
Mataram and
Sulu.
After the
Mongols destroyed the Abbasid caliphate, after the
Battle of Baghdad, they conquered Muslim lands, but soon converted to Islam, beginning an era of Mongol expansions of Muslim rule into
Central Asia under
Timur, founder of the
Timurid dynasty, and later into the
Indian subcontinent under his descendant
Babur, founder of the
Mughal Empire.
The
Modern era saw the rise of three powerful Muslim empires: the
Ottoman Empire, the
Safavid Empire of Persia, and the
Mughal Empire of India; the contest and their fall to the rise of the
colonial powers of
Europe.
Decline and collapse: 1800-1924
The
Mughal Empire began to decline in 1707 after the death of Aurangzeb and was officially abolished by the British in 1848. The
Safavid Empire ended with the death of its last ruler Ismail III who ruled from 1750 until his death in 1760. The last surviving Muslim empire, the
Ottoman Empire, collapsed in 1918 in the aftermath of World War I. On March 3rd 1924, the institution of the Caliphate was constitutionally abolished by President
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk as part of his reforms.
Retrieved from "
See also
Notes
1.
^ Martin Sicker (2000),
The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna, Praeger.
References
Conquest of Arabia
Uhud – Trench – Mu'tah – Mecca – Hunayn – Ta'if
Ridda Wars
Yamama – Zafar – Daumat-ul-Jandal – Buzakha –
Ghamra – Naqra
Conquest of the Persian Empire
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The Muslim conquest of Syria occurred in the first half of the 7th century,[1] and refers to the region known as the Bilad al-Sham, the Levant, or Greater Syria.
..... Click the link for more information.
The Arab conquest of Armenia was a part of the Muslim conquests which began after the death of the prophet Muhammad.
Islamic expansion
This article is part of the series on: History of Armenia
Early History
Origins
Name
Hayk
..... Click the link for more information. Muslim conquest of Egypt, Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the Persian Empire under Khosrau II (616 to 629 AD).
It was also religiously alienated.
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The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Arab Muslim expansion following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE. By 640 the Arabs controlled Mesopotamia, had invaded Armenia, and were concluding their conquest of Byzantine Syria.
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This article or section needs sources or references that appear in reliable, third-party publications. Alone, primary sources and sources affiliated with the subject of this article are not sufficient for an accurate encyclopedia article.
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BCE Zayandeh River Civilization prehistoric–? Sialk civilization 7500–1000 Jiroft civilization (Aratta) Proto-Elamite civilization Bactria-Margiana Complex Elamite dynasties 2800–550 Kingdom of Mannai Median Empire 728–550 Achaemenid Empire Seleucid Empire
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BCE Zayandeh River Civilization prehistoric–? Sialk civilization 7500–1000 Jiroft civilization (Aratta) Proto-Elamite civilization Bactria-Margiana Complex Elamite dynasties 2800–550 Kingdom of Mannai Median Empire 728–550 Achaemenid Empire Seleucid Empire
..... Click the link for more information.
History of Afghanistan Pre-Islamic Period • Islamic Conquest
- Durrani Empire
- British and Russian influence
- Independence and civil war
- Mohammedzai monarchy
- Republic of Afghanistan
..... Click the link for more information. The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent mainly took place from the 13th to the 16th centuries, though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into the region, beginning during the period of the ascendancy of the Rajput Kingdoms in North India, from the 7th century
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Khazar Arab Wars were a series of battle that took place during two campaigns in the First and Second Khazar-Arab War between the armies of the Khazar Khaganate and the Umayyad Caliphate.
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Umayyad conquest of Hispania (711–718) commenced when an army of the Umayyad Caliphate consisting largely of Moors, the Muslim inhabitants of Northwest Africa, invaded Visigothic Christian Hispania (Portugal and Spain) in the year 711.
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Battle of Talas in 751 was a conflict between the Arab Abbasid Caliphate and the Chinese Tang Dynasty for control of the Syr Darya. The Chinese army was defeated following the routing of their troops by the Abbasids on the bank of the Talas River.
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Prophets of Islam are male human beings who are regarded by Muslims to be prophets chosen by God. The term for prophet in Islam is nabi (pl. anbiyaa).
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Islamic prophet Muhammad
Life - Family tree
- In Mecca'''
- In Medina'''
- Conquest of Mecca
- The Farewell Sermon
- Succession
Roles ..... Click the link for more information. Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية, or جزيرة العرب) is a peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of
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The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs (الخلفاء الراشدون transliteration:
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AD Tulunid dynasty 868-905 Hamdanid dynasty 890-1004 Ikhshidid dynasty 935-969 Uqaylid Dynasty 990-1096 Zengid dynasty 1127-1250 Ayyubid dynasty 1171-1246 Bahri dynasty 1250-1382 Burji dynasty 1382–1517
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A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfah), is the Islamic form of government representing the political unity and leadership of the Muslim world.
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The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter.
Please help [ improve the introduction] to meet Wikipedia's layout standards.
..... Click the link for more information. Muslim (Arabic: مسلم) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. The feminine form of 'Muslim' is Muslimah (Arabic: مسلمة).
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AD Tulunid dynasty 868-905 Hamdanid dynasty 890-1004 Ikhshidid dynasty 935-969 Uqaylid Dynasty 990-1096 Zengid dynasty 1127-1250 Ayyubid dynasty 1171-1246 Bahri dynasty 1250-1382 Burji dynasty 1382–1517
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India (from Greek
Ἰνδία, "region of the Indus river") may refer to:
In
politics:
- Contemporary Republic of India (post-1947)
In
geography:
..... Click the link for more information. Central Asia is a vast landlocked region of Asia. Though various definitions of its exact composition exist, no one definition is universally accepted. Despite this uncertainty in defining borders, it does have some important overall characteristics.
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Middle East is a historical and political region of Africa-Eurasia with no clear boundaries. The term "Middle East" was popularized around 1900 in Britain, and has been criticized for its loose definition.
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North Africa or
Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Africa. Geopolitically, the UN definition of Northern Africa includes the following seven territories:
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Fratelli d'Italia)
..... Click the link for more information. The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar. It is the western and southernmost of the three southern European peninsulas (the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas).
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Pyrenees Spanish: PirineosCountries | Spain,France,Andorra
Geology..... Click the link for more information. Edward Gibbon (April 27, 1737[1] – January 16, 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, was published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788.
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