Information about Pell number

In mathematics, the Pell numbers and companion Pell numbers (Pell-Lucas numbers) are both sequences of integers that have been known since ancient times. They are defined by a recurrence relation similar to that for the Fibonacci numbers, and grow exponentially, proportionally to powers of the silver ratio. Pell numbers arise in the approximation of the square root of 2, in the definition of square triangular numbers, in the construction of nearly-isosceles integer right triangles, and in certain combinatorial enumeration problems.^[1]

As with Pell's equation, the name of the Pell numbers stems from Leonhard Euler's mistaken attribution of the equation and the numbers derived from it to John Pell. The Pell-Lucas numbers are also named after Edouard Lucas, who studied sequences defined by recurrences of this type; the Pell and companion Pell numbers are Lucas sequences.

Pell numbers

The Pell numbers are defined by the recurrence relation

$\text{[math]}$

In words, the sequence of Pell numbers starts with 0 and 1, and then each Pell number is the sum of twice the previous Pell number and the Pell number before that. The first few terms of the sequence are

0, 1, 2, 5, 12, 29, 70, 169, 408, 985, 2378... (sequence [ A000129] in OEIS).

The Pell numbers can also be expressed by the closed form formula

$\text{[math]}$

For large values of n, the $\text{[math]}$ term dominates this expression, so the Pell numbers are approximately proportional to powers of the silver ratio $\text{[math]}$ , analogous to the growth rate of Fibonacci numbers as powers of the golden ratio.

A third definition is possible, from the matrix formula

$\text{[math]}$

Many identities can be derived or proven from these definitions; for instance an identity analogous to Cassini's identity for Fibonacci numbers,

$\text{[math]}$

is an immediate consequence of the matrix formula (found by considering determinants).^[2]

Approximation to the square root of two

Rational approximations to regular octagons, with coordinates derived from the Pell numbers.

Pell numbers arise historically and most notably in the rational approximation to the square root of 2. If two large integers x and y form a solution to the Pell equation

$\text{[math]}$

then their ratio $\text{[math]}$ provides a close approximation to $\text{[math]}$ . The sequence of approximations of this form is

$\text{[math]}$

where the denominator of each fraction is a Pell number and the numerator is the sum of a Pell number and its predecessor in the sequence. That is, the solutions have the form $\text{[math]}$ . The approximation

$\text{[math]}$

of this type was known to Indian mathematicians in the third or fourth century B.C.^[3] The Greek mathematicians of the fifth century B.C. also knew of this sequence of approximations^[4]; they called the denominators and numerators of this sequence side and diameter numbers and the numerators were also known as rational diagonals or rational diameters.^[5]

These approximations can be derived from the continued fraction expansion of $\text{[math]}$ :

$\text{[math]}$

Truncating this expansion to any number of terms produces one of the Pell-number-based approximations in this sequence; for instance,

$\text{[math]}$

As Knuth (1994) describes, the fact that Pell numbers approximate $\text{[math]}$ allows them to be used for accurate rational approximations to a regular octagon with vertex coordinates $\text{[math]}$ and $\text{[math]}$ . All vertices are equally distant from the origin, and form nearly uniform angles around the origin. Alternatively, the points $\text{[math]}$ , $\text{[math]}$ , and $\text{[math]}$ form approximate octagons in which the vertices are nearly equally distant from the origin and form uniform angles.

Primes and squares

A Pell prime is a Pell number that is prime. The first few Pell primes are

2, 5, 29, 5741, ... (sequence [ A086383] in OEIS).

As with the Fibonacci numbers, a Pell number $\text{[math]}$ can only be prime if n itself is prime.

The only Pell numbers that are squares, cubes, or any higher power of another integer are 0, 1, and 169 = 13².^[6]

However, despite having so few squares or other powers, Pell numbers have a close connection to square triangular numbers.^[7] Specifically, these numbers arise from the following identity of Pell numbers:

$\text{[math]}$

The left side of this identity describes a square number, while the right side describes a triangular number, so the result is a square triangular number.

Santana and Diaz-Barrero (2006) prove another identity relating Pell numbers to squares and showing that the sum of the Pell numbers up to $\text{[math]}$ is always a square:

$\text{[math]}$

For instance, the sum of the Pell numbers up to $\text{[math]}$ , $\text{[math]}$ , is the square of $\text{[math]}$ . The numbers $\text{[math]}$ forming the square roots of these sums,

1, 7, 41, 239, 1393, 8119, 47321, ... (sequence [ A002315] in OEIS),

are known as the NSW numbers.

Pythagorean triples

Integer right triangles with nearly equal legs, derived from the Pell numbers.

If a right triangle has integer side lengths a, b, c (necessarily satisfying the Pythagorean theorem a²+b²=c²), then (a,b,c) is known as a Pythagorean triple. As Martin (1875) describes, the Pell numbers can be used to form Pythagorean triples in which a and b are one unit apart, corresponding to right triangles that are nearly isosceles. Each such triple has the form

$\text{[math]}$

The sequence of Pythagorean triples formed in this way is

(4,3,5), (20,21,29), (120,119,169), (696,697,985), ...

Companion Pell numbers (Pell-Lucas numbers)

The companion Pell numbers or Pell-Lucas numbers are defined by the recurrence relation

$\text{[math]}$

In words: the first two numbers in the sequence are both 2, and each successive number is formed by adding twice the previous Pell-Lucas number to the Pell-Lucas number before that. The first few terms of the sequence are (sequence [ A002203] in OEIS): 2, 2, 6, 14, 34, 82, 198, 478...

The companion Pell numbers can be expressed by the closed form formula

$\text{[math]}$

These numbers are all even; each such number is twice the numerator in one of the rational approximations to $\text{[math]}$ discussed above.

Notes

1. ^ For instance, Sellers (2002) proves that the number of perfect matchings in the Cartesian product of a path graph and the graph K₄-e can be calculated as the product of a Pell number with the corresponding Fibonacci number.
2. ^ For the matrix formula and its consequences see Ercolano (1979) and Kilic and Tasci (2005). Additional identities for the Pell numbers are listed by Horadam (1971) and Bicknell (1975).
3. ^ As recorded in the Shulba Sutras; see e.g. Dutka (1986), who cites Thibaut (1875) for this information.
4. ^ See Knorr (1976) for the fifth century date, which matches Proclus' claim that the side and diameter numbers were discovered by the Pythagoreans. For more detailed exploration of later Greek knowledge of these numbers see Thompson (1929), Vedova (1951), Ridenhour (1986), Knorr (1998), and Filep (1999).
5. ^ For instance, as several of the references from the previous note observe, in Plato's Republic there is a reference to the "rational diameter of 5", by which Plato means 7, the numerator of the approximation 7/5 of which 5 is the denominator.
6. ^ Pethő (1992); Cohn (1996). Although the Fibonacci numbers are defined by a very similar recurrence to the Pell numbers, Cohn writes that an analogous result for the Fibonacci numbers seems much more difficult to prove.
7. ^ Sesskin (1962). See the square triangular number article for a more detailed derivation.

References

Bicknell, Marjorie (1975). "A primer on the Pell sequence and related sequences". Fibonacci Quarterly 13 (4): 345–349. MR 0387173.
Cohn, J. H. E. (1996). "Perfect Pell powers". Glasgow Mathematical Journal 38 (1): 19–20. MR 1373953.
Dutka, Jacques (1986). "On square roots and their representations". Archive for History of Exact Sciences 36 (1): 21–39. DOI:10.1007/BF00357439. MR 0863340.
Ercolano, Joseph (1979). "Matrix generators of Pell sequences". Fibonacci Quarterly 17 (1): 71–77. MR 0525602.
Filep, LÃ¡szlÃ³ (1999). "Pythagorean side and diagonal numbers". Acta Mathematica Academiae Paedagogiace NyÃregyhÃ¡ziensis 15: 1–7.
Horadam, A. F. (1971). "Pell identities". Fibonacci Quarterly 9 (3): 245–252, 263. MR 0308029.
Kilic, Emrah; Tasci, Dursun (2005). "The linear algebra of the Pell matrix". BoletÃn de la Sociedad MatemÃ¡tica Mexicana, Tercera Serie 11 (2): 163–174. MR 2207722.
Knorr, Wilbur (1976). "Archimedes and the measurement of the circle: A new interpretation". Archive for History of Exact Sciences 15 (2): 115–140. DOI:10.1007/BF00348496. MR 0497462.
Knorr, Wilbur (1998). ""Rational diameters" and the discovery of incommensurability". American Mathematical Monthly 105 (5): 421–429.
Knuth, Donald E. (1994). "Leaper graphs". The Mathematical Gazette 78: 274–297. arXiv:math.CO/9411240.
Martin, Artemas (1875). "Rational right angled triangles nearly isosceles". The Analyst 3 (2): 47–50.
Pethő, A. (1992). "The Pell sequence contains only trivial perfect powers". Sets, graphs, and numbers (Budapest, 1991): 561–568, Colloq. Math. Soc. JÃ¡nos Bolyai, 60, North-Holland. MR 1218218.
Ridenhour, J. R. (1986). "Ladder approximations of irrational numbers". Mathematics Magazine 59 (2): 95–105.
Santana, S. F.; Diaz-Barrero, J. L. (2006). "Some properties of sums involving Pell numbers". Missouri Journal of Mathematical Sciences 18 (1).
Sellers, James A. (2002). "Domino tilings and products of Fibonacci and Pell numbers". Journal of Integer Sequences 5. MR 1919941.
Sesskin, Sam (1962). "A "converse" to Fermat's last theorem?". Mathematics Magazine 35 (4): 215–217.
Thibaut, George (1875). "On the SÃºlvasÃºtras". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal 44: 227–275.
Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth (1929). "III.—Excess and defect: or the little more and the little less". Mind: New Series 38 (149): 43–55.
Vedova, G. C. (1951). "Notes on Theon of Smyrna". American Mathematical Monthly 58 (10): 675–683.

External links

Eric W. Weisstein, Pell Number at MathWorld.

Mathematics (colloquially, maths or math) is the body of knowledge centered on such concepts as quantity, structure, space, and change, and also the academic discipline that studies them. Benjamin Peirce called it "the science that draws necessary conclusions".
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sequence is an ordered list of objects (or events). Like a set, it contains members (also called elements or terms), and the number of terms (possibly infinite) is called the length of the sequence.
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The integers (from the Latin integer, which means with untouched integrity, whole, entire) are the set of numbers including the whole numbers (0, 1, 2, 3, …) and their negatives (0, −1, −2, −3, …).
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In mathematics, a recurrence relation is an equation that defines a sequence recursively: each term of the sequence is defined as a function of the preceding terms. A difference equation is a specific type of recurrence relation.
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Fibonacci numbers form a sequence defined by the following recurrence relation:

That is, after two starting values, each number is the sum of the two preceding numbers.
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In mathematics, exponential growth (or geometric growth) occurs when the growth rate of a function is always proportional to the function's current size. Such growth is said to follow an exponential law (but see also Malthusian growth model).
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The silver ratio is a mathematical constant. Its name is an allusion to the golden ratio; analogously to the way the golden ratio is the limiting ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers, the silver ratio is the limiting ratio of consecutive Pell numbers.
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square root of 2, also known as Pythagoras' constant, often denoted by

is the positive real number that, when multiplied by itself, gives the number 2.
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For squares of triangular numbers, see squared triangular number

A square triangular number (or triangular square number) is a number which is both a triangular number and a perfect square.
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Pell's equation is any Diophantine equation of the form

where n is a nonsquare integer. In calling it "Diophantine" we are really saying what we intend to do with the equation rather than describing any intrinsic property of the equation:
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Leonhard Euler

Portrait by Johann Georg Brucker
Born March 15 1707
Basel, Switzerland
Died September 18 [O.S.
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John Pell (March 1, 1611 – December 12, 1685), was an English mathematician.

He was born at Southwick in Sussex, where his father was minister. He was educated at Steyning Grammar School, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of thirteen.
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FranÃ§ois Ã‰douard Anatole Lucas (April 4, 1842 in Amiens - October 3, 1891) was a French mathematician. Lucas is known for his study of the Fibonacci sequence. The related Lucas sequence is named after him.
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0 (zero) is both a number and a numerical digit used to represent that number in numerals. It plays a central role in mathematics as the additive identity of the integers, real numbers, and many other algebraic structures.
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Mathematical properties
φ(12) = 4 τ(12) = 6
σ(12) = 28 π(12) = 5
μ(12) = 0 M(12) = -2

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For the year AD, see 169 AD.

169 is the natural number following 168 and preceding 170.

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Catalan's identity generalizes this:
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square root of 2, also known as Pythagoras' constant, often denoted by

is the positive real number that, when multiplied by itself, gives the number 2.
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Pell Number

Pell numbers

Approximation to the square root of two

Primes and squares

Pythagorean triples

Companion Pell numbers (Pell-Lucas numbers)

Notes

References

External links

In mathematics