The Chronicles of Narnia

The seven Narnia books
Author	C.S. Lewis
Language	English
Genre(s)	Fantasy
Publisher
Publication date	1950–1956
Media type	Print (Hardback & Paperback)

The Chronicles of Narnia is a series of seven fantasy novels for children written by C. S. Lewis. It is considered a classic of children's literature and is the author's best-known work, having sold over 100 million copies in 41 languages. Written by Lewis between 1949 and 1954 and illustrated by Pauline Baynes, The Chronicles of Narnia have been adapted several times, complete or in part, for radio, television, stage, and cinema.

The series contains many allusions to traditional Christian ideas, presented in a format designed to make them easily accessible to younger readers; however, the books can also be read purely for their adventure, colour, and richness of ideas, and as a result have become favourites of children and adults, Christians and non-Christians alike. In addition to employing Christian themes, Lewis also borrows characters and ideas from Greek and Roman mythology, as well as from traditional British and Irish fairy tales.

The Chronicles of Narnia present the adventures of children who play central roles in the unfolding history of the fictional realm of Narnia, a place where animals talk, magic is common, and good battles evil. Each of the books (with the exception of The Horse and His Boy) features as its protagonists children from our world who are magically transported to Narnia, where they are called upon to help the lion Aslan right some wrong.

The 7 books

The Chronicles of Narnia have been in continuous publication since 1954 and have sold over 100 million copies in 41 languages (Kelly 2006) (Guthmann 2005). Lewis was awarded the 1956 Carnegie Medal for The Last Battle, the final book in the Narnia series. The books were written by Lewis between 1949 and 1954 but were not written entirely in either the order they were originally published or in the chronological order in which they currently appear (Ford 2005). The original illustrator was Pauline Baynes and her simple pen and ink drawings are still used in publication today. The seven books that make up The Chronicles of Narnia are presented here in the order in which they were originally published (see reading order below). Completion dates for the novels are English (Northern Hemisphere) seasons.

The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950)

Main article: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe

The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, completed in the spring of 1950 (Ford 2005) and published in 1950, tells the story of four ordinary children: Peter, Susan, Edmund and Lucy Pevensie. They discover that the wardrobe in an old professor's house leads to the magical land of Narnia, currently under the spell of a witch. The children fulfil an ancient, mysterious prophecy as they help Aslan save Narnia from the evil White Witch who has reigned over the kingdom of Narnia for 100 years.

Prince Caspian: The Return to Narnia (1951)

Main article: Prince Caspian

Completed in the autumn of 1949 and published in 1951, Prince Caspian: The Return to Narnia tells the story of the Pevensie children's second trip to Narnia, during which they discover that an evil king has usurped the throne. Once again, they set out to save Narnia, this time with the help of the rightful ruler, Prince Caspian.

The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (1952)

Main article: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader

Completed in the winter of 1950 and published in 1952, The Voyage of the ‘Dawn Treader’ returns Edmund and Lucy Pevensie, along with their cousin, Eustace Scrubb, to Narnia. Once there, they accompany King Caspian on a voyage to find the seven lords who were banished when Miraz took over the throne. This perilous journey brings them face to face with many wonders and dangers as they sail toward Aslan's country at the end of the world.

The Silver Chair (1953)

Main article: The Silver Chair

Completed in the spring of 1951 and published in 1953, The Silver Chair is the first book without the Pevensie children. Instead, Aslan calls Eustace back to Narnia together with his classmate Jill Pole. There they are given four clues to find Prince Rilian, Caspian's son, who had been kidnapped ten years earlier. Eustace and Jill, with the help of Puddleglum the Marsh-wiggle and many others, face great danger before finding Rilian.

The Horse and His Boy (1954)

Main article: The Horse and His Boy

Completed in the spring of 1950 and published in 1954, The Horse and His Boy is the first of the books that does not follow the previous one sequentially; instead, it takes place during the reign of the Pevensies in Narnia, an era which begins and ends in the last chapter of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. The story is about Bree, a talking horse, and Shasta, a young boy, who have both been held (albeit separately) in bondage in Calormen, a country to the south of Narnia. By chance, they meet each other and plan their return to Narnia and freedom. On their journey they discover that the Calormenes are about to invade Archenland, and they plan to arrive there first to alert the King.

The Magician’s Nephew (1955)

Main article: The Magician's Nephew

Completed in the winter of 1954 and published in 1955, the prequel The Magician's Nephew brings the reader back to the very beginning of Narnia where we learn how Aslan created the world and how evil first entered it. Another group of people from Earth stumble into Narnia via an entirely different route. Many long-standing questions about Narnia are answered, such as how inter-world travel was made possible, and where the wardrobe came from.

The Last Battle (1956)

Main article: The Last Battle

The Last Battle, completed in the spring of 1953, published in 1956 and awarded the Carnegie Medal, chronicles the end of the world of Narnia. Jill and Eustace return to save Narnia from Shift, an ape, who tricks Puzzle, a donkey, into impersonating the lion Aslan. This is the seventh and last book in the series.

Reading order

Fans of the series often have strong opinions over the correct ordering of the books. When the books were originally published, they were not numbered. The first American publisher, Macmillan, put numbers on the books in the order in which they were published. When HarperCollins took over the series in 1994, the books were renumbered using the internal chronological order, as suggested by Lewis' stepson, Douglas Gresham.

Publication order vs. Chronological order

Publication order	Chronological order
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe	The Magician's Nephew
Prince Caspian	The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe
The Voyage of the Dawn Treader	The Horse and His Boy
The Silver Chair	Prince Caspian
The Horse and His Boy	The Voyage of the Dawn Treader
The Magician's Nephew	The Silver Chair
The Last Battle	The Last Battle

To make the case for his suggested order, Gresham quoted Lewis' reply to a letter from an American fan in 1957 who was having an argument with his mother about the order:

“I think I agree with your order [i.e. chronological] for reading the books more than with your mother’s. The series was not planned beforehand as she thinks. When I wrote The Lion I did not know I was going to write any more. Then I wrote P. Caspian as a sequel and still didn't think there would be any more, and when I had done The Voyage I felt quite sure it would be the last. But I found as I was wrong. So perhaps it does not matter very much in which order anyone read them. I’m not even sure that all the others were written in the same order in which they were published” (Dorsett & Mead 1996).

Some fans of the series who appreciate the original order believe that Lewis was only being polite to a child, and that he could have changed the order in his lifetime had he so desired (Brady 2005). They maintain that much of the magic of Narnia comes from the way in which the world is gradually presented in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. They believe that the mystery of the wardrobe is narratively a much better introduction than in The Magician's Nephew — where the word "Narnia" is the fortieth word in the book. Moreover, they say that it is clear from the texts themselves that The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was intended to be the first book read, and that The Magician's Nephew was not. For instance, in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, when Aslan is first mentioned, the narrator states, "None of the children knew who Aslan was, any more than you do." Fans of the original order say that that statement is nonsensical if one has already read The Magician's Nephew. This should not, however, be seen as 'proof' that this is the order in which the books should be read as this was simply the result of the order in which they were written. Lewis could not have known that this statement should have been omitted as he had not, at that time, written 'The Magician's Nephew'. Other similar textual examples are also cited. This argument hinges partly on the claim that Chronology is not equivalent to Narrative (Rilstone 2004).

In the HarperCollins adult editions of the books (2005), the publisher asserts Lewis' preference for the numbering they adopted in a notice on the copyright page:

“Although The Magician's Nephew was written several years after C.S. Lewis first began THE CHRONICLES OF NARNIA®, he wanted it to be read as the first book in the series. HarperCollins is happy to present these books in the order which Professor Lewis preferred."

Christian parallels

Specific Christian parallels may be found in the entries for individual and .

Although he did not set out to do so, in the process of writing his fantasy works, Lewis (an adult convert to Christianity) found himself incorporating Christian theological concepts into his stories. As he wrote in Of Other Worlds:

“Some people seem to think that I began by asking myself how I could say something about Christianity to children; then fixed on the fairy tale as an instrument, then collected information about child psychology and decided what age group I’d write for; then drew up a list of basic Christian truths and hammered out ‘allegories’ to embody them. This is all pure moonshine. I couldn’t write in that way. It all began with images; a faun carrying an umbrella, a queen on a sledge, a magnificent lion. At first there wasn’t anything Christian about them; that element pushed itself in of its own accord.”

Lewis, an expert on the subject of allegory, maintained that the books were not allegory, and preferred to call the Christian aspects of them "suppositional". This is similar to what we would now call fictional parallel universes. As Lewis wrote in a letter to a Mrs Hook in December of 1958:

“If Aslan represented the immaterial Deity in the same way in which Giant Despair [a character in The Pilgrim's Progress] represents despair, he would be an allegorical figure. In reality, however, he is an invention giving an imaginary answer to the question, ‘What might Christ become like if there really were a world like Narnia, and He chose to be incarnate and die and rise again in that world as He actually has done in ours?’ This is not allegory at all” (Martindale & Root 1990).

The Narnia series is not an allegory, because allegories have an overarching figurative level of meaning tied to the literal level, and the Narnia series has a literal level of meaning without any overarching figurative level, though there are figurative elements. The misconception that the Narnia series is an allegory is the result of the disjunction caused by the narrative taking place across parallel universes. There are similarities between the world of Narnia and our own, but these are literal manifestations of the same phenomena in multiple worlds, not allegorical abstractions. For example, the character Aslan is not an allegorical representation of Christ, but a literal representation of Christ only in another body, in another universe, and by another name. Aslan and Jesus are the same character in two different worlds. There is no allegory involved. As Lewis has Aslan say at the end of Dawn Treader, "There I have another name. You must learn to know me by that name."

With the release of the there has been renewed interest in the Christian parallels found in the books. Some find them distasteful, while noting that they are easy to miss if you are not familiar with Christianity (Toynbee 2005). Alan Jacobs, author of The Narnian: The Life and Imagination of C.S. Lewis, says flatly that Lewis has become "a pawn in America's culture wars" (Jacobs 2005). Some Christians see the Chronicles as excellent tools for Christian evangelism (Kent 2005). A multitude of books have been written that draw attention to the Chronicles' Biblical parallels (see Further Reading below).

Influences on Narnia

Lewis' life

Lewis's early life has echoes within the Chronicles. Born in Belfast, Northern Ireland in 1898, he moved with his family to a large house on the edge of the city when he was seven. The house contained long hallways and empty rooms, and Lewis and his brother invented make-believe worlds while exploring their home. Like Caspian and Rilian, Lewis lost his mother at an early age (about 10); like Edmund, Jill, and Eustace, he spent a long, miserable time in English boarding schools and, as a young boy, he, again like Caspian, had a tutor who brought new light into his dark, sad life.

During World War II, many children were evacuated from London because of air raids. Some of these children (including one named Lucy) stayed with Lewis at his home in Oxford, just as the Pevensies stayed with the professor (Wilson 2005).

The Inklings

Lewis was the chief member of the Inklings, an informal literary discussion group in Oxford which at various times included the writers J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Lewis's brother W. H. Lewis, and Roger Lancelyn Green. Readings and discussions of the members' unfinished works were one of the main activities of the group when they met, usually on Thursday evenings, in C. S. Lewis's college rooms at Magdalen College. Some of the Narnia stories are thought to have been read to the Inklings for their appreciation and comment.

Influences from mythology

The fauna of the series borrows from both Greek mythology and Norse mythology in the series. For example, centaurs originated in Greek myth, and dwarfs have origins in Norse myth.

Drew Trotter, PhD, president of the Center for Christian Study, noted that the producers of the film version of The Chronicles of Narnia felt that The Chronicles of Narnia closely follows the archetypal pattern of the monomyth as detailed in Joseph Campbell's The Hero With a Thousand Faces (Trotter 2005). Joseph Campbell himself felt that the New Testament adhered to the archetypal monomyth and was but "one version of mythic stories that can be found in many cultures" (Jacobs 2004). Both The Chronicles of Narnia and the New Testament contain Jungian archetypal imagery.

Name

The origin of the name Narnia is uncertain. According to Paul Ford's Companion to Narnia, there is no indication that Lewis was alluding to the ancient Umbrian city Nequinium, renamed Narnia by the conquering Romans in 299 BC after the river Nar, a tributary of the Tiber. However, since Lewis studied classics at Oxford, it is possible that he came across at least some of the seven or so references to Narnia in Latin literature (Ford 2005).

There is no evidence of a link with Tolkien's Elvish (Sindarin) word narn, meaning a lay or poetic narrative, as in his posthumously published Narn i Chîn Húrin, though Lewis may have read or heard parts of this at meetings of the Inklings.

Narnia's influence on others

Influence on authors

A more recent British series of novels, Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials, has been seen as a response to the Narnia books. Pullman's series favours scientific materialism over religion, wholly rejecting the themes of Christian theology which permeate the Narnia series, but has many of the same issues, subject matter, and types of characters (including talking animals) as the Chronicles of Narnia.

Fantasy author Neil Gaiman wrote the 2004 short story "The Problem of Susan", in which an elderly woman, Professor Hastings, is depicted dealing with the grief and trauma of her entire family dying in a train crash. The woman's first name is not revealed, but she mentions her brother "Ed", and it is strongly implied that this is Susan Pevensie as an elderly woman. In the story Gaiman presents, in fictional form, a critique of Lewis' treatment of Susan. The story can be found in Flights: Extreme Visions of Fantasy Volume II (edited by Al Sarrantonio) and in the Gaiman collection Fragile Things. "The Problem of Susan" is written for an adult audience and deals with sexuality and violence (Gaiman 2004). Additionally, Gaiman's Sandman graphic novel series features a Narnia-like "dream island" in its story arc entitled A Game of You.

J.K. Rowling also cites that the "The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe" was one of her favourite books of her childhood. "Even now, if I was in a room with one of the Narnia books I would pick it up like a shot and re-read it," she states.

The Talisman, written by Stephen King and Peter Straub, features a boy named Jack who travels between our Earth and a magical world in hopes of acquiring a mystical object in order to save the life of his mother who is dying of cancer, as well as the world. A main premise of the book, the concept of "twinners", closely resembles Lewis' assertion that Aslan is a manifestation of Jesus Christ in a parallel world. In King's The Dark Tower series, the Dark Tower is described as the "lynchpin" where all possible realities connect. At one point it is stated that in one reality the Tower manifests as a lion.

In Katherine Paterson's book Bridge to Terabithia, one of the main characters, Leslie, tells the other main character, Jesse, of her love of C. S. Lewis' books, and mentions Narnia. Some people have accused her of plagiarism, because of a Narnian island named Terebinthia, but Paterson has said that the reference was not deliberate (Paterson 2003, pp. 1).

Science fiction author Greg Egan's short story "Oracle" depicts a parallel universe with an author nicknamed "Jack" who has written novels about the fictional Kingdom of Nesica, and whose wife is dying of cancer. The story uses several Narnian allegories to explore issues of religion and faith versus science and knowledge.

Influence on popular culture

As one would expect with any popular, long-lived work, references to The Chronicles of Narnia are relatively common in pop culture. References to the lion Aslan, travelling via wardrobe, and direct references to The Chronicles of Narnia occur in books, television, songs, games and graphic novels. For example:

Music

Many artists have recorded songs and albums that make reference to Narnia including: Bob Ayala's 1978 album Wood Between the Worlds, Genesis guitarist Steve Hackett's 1978 song "Narnia", The Waterboys song Further Up, Further In, Phish's song Prince Caspian, Marcy Playground song The Ballad of Aslan, Marcos Vidal's 1993 song Aslan, Relient K's song In Like a Lion (Always Winter), and Joanna Newsome's song "Bridges and Balloons". Additionally, some band's names are references to Lewis's work: the Swedish Christian progressive metal band, Narnia, the Dublin rock band Aslan, and the Seattle Christian band Poor Old Lu among others.

Television

When references to The Chronicles of Narnia appear on television they are generally only made in passing and have no direct relationship to the plot of the episode. For example: In Friends, Chandler says "Why yes Ross, pressing my third nipple opens the delivery entrance to the magical land of Narnia". In a Season 6 episode of Gilmore Girls, when pressed about her religious affiliation, Rory replies "I read The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe"; later in season 6 Christopher shows up to tell Lorelai that he has inherited a vast sum of money and can buy them anything like a castle: "Doesn't have to be in Ireland. It can be in Germany, Czech Republic, Scotland... Narnia." In an episode of My Parents are Aliens, Brian wants to go in a wardrobe to go to Narnia. Sometimes the references are more opaque, for instance: in the television series Black Books, the character "Gus" (who is played by the actor who played the Witch's dwarf and Trumpkin in the BBC adaptations) asks for some Turkish Delight.

References to Narnia also appear in animated series: the Comedy Central series South Park briefly references Narnia in the episode Chickenlover where Cartman pretends to have read the novel, and summarizes the plot, "a bunch of, uh, hippies, walk around and paint stuff. They eat lunch, and then they find a magical... camel... which they have to eat to stay alive." The series makes more extensive references in the episodes Here Comes the Neighborhood and Woodland Critter Christmas where Aslan like lions make appearances. Peter, from the show Family Guy, briefly visited Narnia when he plunged into the clothes dryer in pursuit of a lost sock. Upon landing, he was greeted by a small creature, who introduces himself as Mr. Tumnus, and says, "Welcome to Narnia!" Peter responds with "Gimme back my sock, you goat-bastard!" before Mr. Tumnus runs quickly away with it. In an episode of Lil' Bush, Lil' George Bush meets Lil' Tony Blair. As they talk, Bush compliments Blair on his British accent then asking if he is from Narnia, since the actors from The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe are all British.

Specific books in the series are used as props within the context of the story including Buffy The Vampire Slayer and Lost. Additionally references also appear in the titles of episodes such as: 's The Toad, the Witch, and the Wardrobe and Sabrina, the Teenage Witch's The Lyin', the Witch and the Wardrobe.

Several shows have made more extensive references to the series or its popularity including the British comedy series The Young Ones in the (episode "Flood") and the Saturday Night Live skit Lazy Sunday from the 2005-06 season. In The Young Ones, Vyvyan enters a wardrobe whilst playing hide and seek and enters Narnia, where he is met by the White Witch and her dwarf sleigh-driver. She offers him Turkish Delight and he lets on that he is looking for one of his housemates who was earlier frightened by a Lion (a lion-tamer was using his bedroom). This worries her and the dwarf says "It's the prophecy." She threatens Vyvyan to stay but he leaves. Later in the same episode landlord Mr. Balowski briefly enters Narnia looking for the boys. in the Saturday Night Live skit Chris Parnell and Andy Samberg rap about a trip to see The Lion, The Witch, and The Wardrobe at a movie theater.

Literature

• Sarah Kane's play 4.48 Psychosis contains several lines lifted from The Silver Chair.
• In Katherine Paterson's Bridge to Terabithia, Leslie refers often to the Narnia books and lends them to Jesse to read so he can learn to act like a king. The name "Terabithia" itself is very similar to one of the foreign lands mentioned in Lewis's books, Terebinthia.
• In Roald Dahl's book Matilda, the character Matilda mentions that she loves the book The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe.
• The Discworld series of humorous fantasy novels by Terry Pratchett contain occasional references to wardrobes that lead to magical lands, although none of the wardrobes encountered thus far in the series are known to do so.
• In Jonathan Franzen's The Corrections, Aslan is a mood enhancer sold in yellow-golden capsules. Characters in the novel also comment on the books. One being an outspoken fan and one calling Lewis a “Catholic propagandist”.
• Stephen King's The Dark Tower series mentions Narnia in the seventh book. Going through a portal, Jake thinks briefly of "Mr. C.S. Lewis, and the wonderful wardrobe that took you to Narnia."
• In The Penderwicks by Jeanne Birdsall, one of the characters compares a large mansion to Cair Paravel.
• In the graphic novel The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (vol. 2, num. 1), a reference is made in a text fragment to the apple tree from The Magician's Nephew. In the next comic in the series, a text piece refers to the possibility of making a wardrobe from the apple tree.

Games

• The adventure game Simon the Sorcerer contains a scene in which the main character finds a stone table and says something like "it is perfect for Troll meals and shaved lions".
• The second instalment of the Simon the Sorcerer series, called "Simon the Sorcerer 2: The Lion, The Wizard and the Wardrobe" contains several references to the original history. In it, the main character (Simon) is sent to a magical land where Calypso the Wizard, an old friend, lives. Simon falls into a trap which involves an enchanted wardrobe which appears right into his bedroom. Once the trap is set, he has to escape from his enemy, the evil Sordid the Sorcerer. In the end of the game he meets a lion called "Masala" who helps him flying through the lands. "I thought he wouldn't appear anymore", Simon says.
• The Traveller role-playing game contains a leonine race known as the Aslan.

Comics

• In The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen comic vol. 2, #1, reference is made in a text fragment to the apple tree from The Magician's Nephew. A text piece in #2 refers to the possibility of making a wardrobe from it.
• In Fables comic vol. 1, it's mentioned that one of the worlds that fell to the Adversary was a land ruled by a lion whom the Fables residents considered to be a bit "holier-than-thou".
• In the graphic novel Associated Student Bodies, Jesus is depicted as an anthropomorphic lion (although it can be just a reference to one of Jesus' titles, Lion of Judah, instead of a Narnia reference).
• In the of the Books of Magic series, Hunter travels from Fairie to Earth via Wardrobe.
• In Sonic X #14, Chris and Cream are attacked by ghosts sent by King Boom Boo. They try to hide inside an old wardrobe, and Cream says "If we're lucky, it will lead to another world" to what Chris answers "That only happens in books and movies". She also mentions that she and Cheese came into his world via a wardrobe.

Other

• The expression "so far back in the closet they're in Narnia" is used humorously to describe a gay person who is deeply closeted, often to the extent of not realizing their own sexual orientation, or not admitting it to themselves. Such people are also sometimes referred to as "Narnians".
• Aslan is a Finnish Christian group which advocates reparative therapy for homosexuals, complete with a lionhead as their logo.
• Narnia is used as the theme of a ballet in Come a Stranger [Dicey's Song perspective of Mina], part of the Tillerman Cycle, by Cynthia Voigt.
• Cair Paravel Latin School in Topeka, Kansas, is a coeducational, non-profit, interdenominational Christian elementary and secondary school expressly named to honour C.S. Lewis.
• There was a Sydney drag show called 'The Lying Bitch and Her Wardrobe', although only the title was based on the series.
• There is a computer consulting company based in the UK using the name "Aslan" and a Lion's head logo. certainly a reference to the character from Narnia.
• In the popular website Neopets, the description for the item 'Blumaroo Statue' is "This Blumaroo has been waiting months for Aslan to arrive..."
• A neighbourhood in Fairfax County, Virginia, has a number of streets named after people and places in the Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian Lane, Prince Caspian Court, Rilian Court, Digory Court, and Narnia Court. (The street names in the area are otherwise generally British-themed, such as Parliament Drive.) Narnia Court is located at roughly .

Criticism

Sexism

Part of the criticism that the novels have received over the years centres on the description of Susan Pevensie in The Last Battle. In the novel, the last of the series, Susan does not go to Narnia; other characters describe Susan as being "no longer a friend of Narnia," and as being interested "in nothing now-a-days except nylons and lipstick and invitations." J.K. Rowling, author of the Harry Potter series (which has been noted by many critics as displaying some Narnian influence of its own), while commenting on Lewis's sentimentality about children, has said:

“There comes a point where Susan, who was the older girl, is lost to Narnia because she becomes interested in lipstick. She’s become irreligious basically because she found sex. I have a big problem with that”.(Grossman 2005)

Others read the passage more critically, including allegations of sexism. Author of the children's series His Dark Materials, Philip Pullman, an atheist (Dodd 2004), openly criticised The Chronicles of Narnia for what he described as religious propaganda. Speaking at the Guardian Hay Festival, Pullman said the Narnia stories were "monumentally disparaging of women" (Ezard 2002), and has been quoted as saying, "I hate the Narnia books… with a passion…".(Vulliamy 2001)

“Susan, like Cinderella, is undergoing a transition from one phase of her life to another. Lewis didn't approve of that. He didn't like women in general, or sexuality at all, at least at the stage in his life when he wrote the Narnia books. He was frightened and appalled at the notion of wanting to grow up” (Pullman 1998).

It is claimed that the reference to "lipsticks, nylons, and invitations" were intended to represent temptations of the world. However, many oppose this view, arguing that the quote is taken out of context, and that Susan does not go back to Narnia in The Last Battle specifically because she no longer believes in it. It is not stated that Susan is permanently excluded: at the end of the story she is still alive in our world with her destiny not yet fully revealed. Moreover, in The Horse and His Boy, an earlier work, Susan's adulthood and sexual maturity is portrayed in a positive light. In fact in the same scene of the Last Battle, Polly Plummer, a woman many decades her superior specifically states, "I wish she WOULD grow up." and so many argue that it was not the feminine lifestyle that was problematic but that she let it become the larger part of her life, even allowing it to derail her faith in Narnia. Defenders of Lewis also cite the positive roles of women in the series, like Lucy Pevensie and Aravis Tarkheena, who are main characters in the The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and The Horse and His Boy, respectively. It is asserted that Lucy is the most admirable of the human characters, and that in general the girls come off better than the boys through the stories. (Anderson 2005), (Rilstone 2005), (Jacobs 2005) However, it should be noted that both of those girls are repeatedly described as being tomboys and are portrayed as prepubescents, which undercuts the point.

A rejoinder to the accusations of sexism in the Narnia books, giving a full literary and theological background, can be found in this essay: "A darker ignorance: C. S. Lewis and the nature of the fall".

Racism

In addition to sexism, Lewis has also been accused of racism. Pullman called the books "blatantly racist" (Ezard 2002) and in an interview with The Observer, criticised the film adaptation of by saying, "if the Disney corporation wants to market this film as a great Christian story, they'll just have to tell lies about it." He added, "it's not the presence of Christian doctrine I object to so much as the absence of Christian virtue," and that the books contained "a peevish blend of racist, misogynistic, and reactionary prejudice" (BBC News 2005).

[For Lewis] “Death is better than life; boys are better than girls; light-coloured people are better than dark-coloured people; and so on. There is no shortage of such nauseating drivel in Narnia, if you can face it” (Pullman 1998).

The racism critique is based on a negative representation of other races and religions, particularly the Calormenes, as enemies of Aslan and Narnia (Hensher 1998). The Calormenes are described as a dark-skinned people who live in a desert, wear turbans and pointy slippers, and are armed with scimitars. Such descriptions have been compared with the historic attire of peoples throughout the Middle Eastern and Asian regions, upon whose physical appearances the Calormenes were obviously based. The Calormene also conform to a number of racist stereotypes of Arabs as well - they are cruel, greedy, cowardly, backstabbing, lazy and prone to gross indulgence, as well as owning slaves. However they are praised for their storytelling, compared with the 'essay writing' of Western cultures.

Yet the Calormene religion is not modelled on any of the monotheistic religions - such as Islam or Sikhism - that are commonly practised in these regions; indeed, Lewis praises certain Islamic attitudes in the theological work "Mere Christianity." Instead, the Calormenes are polytheistic and worship a plethora of gods, including the primary god Tash (meaning "stone" in Turkish), who is portrayed as a corporeal, stereotypical Satanic being requiring human sacrifices from his followers. The religion of the Calormenes seems more likely to have been based on early Canaanite and Carthaginian religion, which also required human sacrifice, and was portrayed as the ultimate in diabolism in G. K. Chesterton's The Everlasting Man, a book which Lewis admired. The unimaginative and business-minded nature of the Calormenes may also have been based on Chesterton's portrayal of Carthage.

The Chronicles have a British Victorian era flavour that was much in fashion during his lifetime, but may now be seen as politically incorrect. Of Lewis, O'Connor writes: "In his time, people thought it was amusing to make fun of other cultures. We don't. Read the stories, ask questions, and remember that the person who wrote this story was altogether too human.". Claims of racism can be seen as countered by Lewis's positive portrayal of two Calormenes and the lack of racism show to them by Narnian nobility. In The Horse and His Boy, the female protagonist Aravis is a Calormene noblewoman who is accepted whole-heartedly by the Archenlanders and Narnians, and comes to marry Cor, a prince of white ethnicity; a progressive and bold statement by Lewis in a time when mixed-race relationships were neither as common nor accepted as they have been in more recent years . In The Last Battle, the Calormene Emeth is deemed a worthy person by Aslan regardless of his skin colour and despite the fact that he was a worshipper of Tash (Nelson 2005).

Propagandism

In a 2005 article for The Guardian, Polly Toynbee also criticised the Narnia books, writing that "Lewis weaves his dreams to invade children's minds with Christian iconography that is part fairytale wonder and joy — but heavily laden with guilt, blame, sacrifice and a suffering that is dark with emotional sadism." Toynbee also stated that Narnia is populated with "worlds of obedient plebs and inferior folk eager to bend at the knee to any passing superior white persons," and that "Narnia is the perfect Republican, muscular Christianity for America — that warped, distorted neo-fascist strain that thinks might is proof of right" (Toynbee 2005, pp. B14).

Some of the criticism may be related to Narnia's Christian content. According to Jacobs, "Those who dislike Christianity itself can be far more harsh". Both Hensher and Pullman, whose criticism in regard to Narnia is expressed above, are atheists (Dodd 2004)[1].

The fact that Lewis and other similar-minded contemporaries such as J. R. R. Tolkien and Charles Williams remained popular over such a long period of time suggests to some that many of the criticisms which have been voiced are minority views, not thought to be significant by the reading public. However, it may be noted that although Tolkien was a Christian, his seminal The Lord of the Rings does not garner such a level of criticism for overt Christian themes.

Paganism

There are certain Christians and Christian organisations who feel that The Chronicles of Narnia promotes "soft sell paganism and occultism", because of the recurring pagan themes and the supposedly heretical depictions of Christ as an anthropomorphic lion. Satyrs, fauns, centaurs, dwarves, giants, and even the pagan god Bacchus and the Maenads are depicted in a positive light, although they are distinctly pagan motifs. Even an animistic "River god" is portrayed in a positive light (Chattaway 2005), (Berit 2005). According to Josh Hurst from Christianity Today, "not only was Lewis hesitant to call his books Christian allegory, but the stories borrow just as much from pagan mythology as they do the Bible" (Hurst 2005).

Arguments against these ideas include ideas such as "How are these mythological creatures defined as evil," "Thinking of Jesus portrayed as a lion would be just as disrespectful as calling Him a mere man," "Lewis used a lion because Jesus is sometimes called the Lion of the Tribe of Judah," and "Lewis simply redeemed these mythological images to tell uplifting tales." While it seems that not every Christian will agree with Lewis' series, some pro-Narnia Christians believe that everyone should be allowed to make their own judgements for themselves, and that it is best that such a topic not be publicly debated.

Lewis himself believed that pagan mythology could act as a preparation for Christianity, both in history and in the imaginative life of an individual, and even suggested that modern man was in such a lamentable state that perhaps it was necessary "first to make people good pagans, and after that to make them Christians"(Lewis, Calabria & Moynihan 1998). He also argued that imaginative enjoyment of (as opposed to belief in) classical mythology has been a feature of Christian culture through much of its history, and that European literature has always had three themes: the natural, the supernatural believed to be true (Christianity) and the supernatural known to be imaginary (mythology). These are represented in the Chronicles by our universe, Aslan's mountain and the Narnia universe respectively, and his point is that the world of the mythological imagination is one of the many ways to Christian truth. He would perhaps not have objected to the suggestion that Aslan is not so much Christ as a "pagan Christ" like Balder and Osiris, paving the way to belief in the true Christ. On a more mundane level, the series could be read as an introduction to the main themes of European literature, and thus as an extension of his professorial work.

The Narnian universe

Main article: Narnia (world)

Most of The Chronicles of Narnia take place in Lewis' world of Narnia. The Narnian world itself is one world in a multiverse of countless worlds including our own. Passage between these worlds is possible, though rare, and may be accomplished in various fashions. Visitors to Narnia observe that the passage of time while they are away is unpredictable. For example, if one year had passed since one left Narnia and returned, a whole century, or perhaps only a week, could have gone by in Narnia. Narnia itself is populated by a wide variety of creatures most of whom would be recognisable to those familiar with European mythologies and British fairy tales.

Inhabitants

See also: Narnia creatures and Narnian characters

Lewis largely populates his stories with two distinct classes of inhabitants: people from our own world and creatures created by the character Aslan and the descendants of these creatures. This is typical of works that involve parallel universes. The majority of characters from our own world serve as the protagonists of the various books, however some are only mentioned in passing. Those inhabitants that Lewis creates through the character Aslan are viewed as either of wonderful variety or a confusing hodgepodge, depending on the reader. Lewis does not limit himself to a single source; instead he borrows from many sources and adds a few more of his own to the mix.

Geography

See also: Narnian places

The Chronicles of Narnia describe Narnia as one major landmass surrounded by an ocean. The ocean contains several islands; most of which are explored during the course of the series. On the main landmass are the countries of Narnia, Archenland, Calormen, and Telmar, as well as a variety of other areas that play a part in the narrative but are not described as countries. Lewis also provides glimpses of more fantastic locations that exist in and around the main world of Narnia.

There are several maps of the Narnia universe available, including what many consider the "official" one, a full-colour version published in 1972 by the books' illustrator, Pauline Baynes. This is currently out of print, although smaller copies can be found in the most recent HarperCollins 2006 hardcover edition of the The Chronicles of Narnia. Two other maps have been recently produced following the popularity of the 2005 film . One, called the "Rose Map of Narnia," is based loosely on Baynes' map and has Narnia trivia and pro-Christian material printed on the reverse. Another map, done in a monochromatic, archaic style reminiscent of Tolkien's Middle-earth maps, is available in print and in an interactive version on the movie DVD. However, it depicts only Narnia and does not include the other countries in the Narnian universe.

Cosmology

A recurring plot device in The Chronicles is the interaction between the various worlds that make up the Narnian multiverse. A variety of devices are used to initiate these cross-overs which generally serve to introduce characters to the land of Narnia. The Cosmology of Narnia is not as internally consistent as that of Lewis contemporary Tolkien's Middle-earth, but works quite well given the more fairy tale atmosphere of the work. During the course of the series we learn, generally in passing, that the world of Narnia is flat, geocentric, has stars with a different makeup than our own, and that the passage of time does not correspond directly to the passage of time in our world.

History

See also: Narnian timeline

Lewis takes us through the entire life of the world of Narnia, showing us the process by which it was created, snapshots of life in Narnia as the history of the world unfolds, and how Narnia is ultimately destroyed. Not surprisingly in a children's series, children, usually from our world, play a prominent role as all of these events unfold. The history of Narnia is generally broken up into the following periods: creation and the period shortly afterwards, the rule of the White Witch, the Golden Age, the invasion and rule of the Telmarines, their subsequent defeat by Caspian X, the rule of King Caspian and his descendants, and the destruction of Narnia. Like many stories, the narrative is not necessarily always presented in chronological order.

Narnia in other media

Television

The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was first adapted for television in 1967. The ten episodes, each thirty minutes long, were directed by Helen Standage. The screenplay was written by Trevor Preston and unlike subsequent adaptations, it is currently unavailable to purchase for home viewing.

In 1979 The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was again adapted for television, this time as an animated special co-produced by Bill Melendez (known for A Charlie Brown Christmas and other Peanuts specials) and the Children's Television Workshop (known for programs such as Sesame Street and The Electric Company). The screenplay was by David D. Connell. It won the Emmy award for Outstanding Animated Program that year.

Most recently, from 1988–1990, parts of The Chronicles of Narnia were turned into four successful BBC television serials, The Chronicles of Narnia. They were nominated for a total of 14 awards, including an Emmy in the category of "Outstanding Children's Program". Only The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe, Prince Caspian, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, and The Silver Chair were filmed. The four serials were later edited into three feature-length films (combining Prince Caspian and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader) and released on VHS and DVD.

Radio

The critically acclaimed BBC Radio 4 dramatisation was produced in the 1980s. Collectively titled Tales of Narnia it covers the entire series and is approximately 15 hours long.

In 1991, Sir Michael Hordern read abridged versions of the classic tales set to haunting music from Marisa Robles, playing the harp, and Christopher Hyde-Smith, playing the flute. These were re-released in 1997 from Collins Audio.

Between 1999 and 2002 Focus on the Family produced radio dramatisations of all 7 books[2]. Production included a cast of over 100 actors, an original orchestral score and cinema-quality digital sound design. Total running time is slightly over 22 hours. Douglas Gresham, the stepson of C.S. Lewis, hosts the series. From the Focus on the Family website:

“Between the lamp post and Cair Paravel on the Western Sea lies Narnia, a mystical land where animals hold the power of speech … woodland fauns conspire with men … dark forces, bent on conquest, gather at the world's rim to wage war against the realm's rightful king … and the Great Lion Aslan is the only hope. Into this enchanted world comes a group of unlikely travellers. These ordinary boys and girls, when faced with peril, learn extraordinary lessons in courage, self-sacrifice, friendship and honour.”

Stage

In 1984, The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was presented at London's Westminster Theatre, produced by Vanessa Ford Productions. The play, adapted by Glyn Robbins, was directed by Richard Williams and designed by Marty Flood; and was revived at the Westminster and on tour until 1997. Productions of other Narnia tales were also presented, including The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (1986), The Magician's Nephew (1988) and The Horse and His Boy (1990). Robbins's adaptations of the Narnia Chronicles are available for production in the UK through Samuel French London[3].

In 1998 the Royal Shakespeare Company premiered The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. The novel was adapted for the stage by Adrian Mitchell, with music by Shaun Davey. The musical was originally directed by Adrian Noble and designed by Anthony Ward, with revival directed by Lucy Pitman-Wallace. The production was well received and ran during the holiday season from 1998 to 2002, at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in Stratford. The production also subsequently transferred to play limited engagements in London at the Barbican Theatre, and at Sadler's Wells. [4] The London Evening Standard wrote:

“…Lucy Pitman-Wallace's beautiful recreation of Adrian Noble's production evokes all the awe and mystery of this mythically complex tale, while never being too snooty to stoop to bracingly comic touches like outrageously camp reindeer or a beaver with a housework addiction… In our science and technology-dominated age, faith is increasingly insignificant — yet in this otherwise gloriously resonant production, it is possible to understand its allure.”

Adrian Mitchell's adaptation later premiered in the US by the Tony award-winning Minneapolis Children's Theatre Company in 2000, and had its West Coast premiere with Seattle Children's Theatre playing the Christmas slot in their 2002-2003 season (and revived for the 2003-2004 season). This adaptation is licensed for performance in the UK by Samuel French[5].

Other notable stage productions of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe have included commercial productions by Malcolm C. Cooke Productions in Australia (directed by Nadia Tass, and described by Douglas Gresham as the best production of the novel he had seen) and by Trumpets Theatre [6]; one of the largest commercial theatres in the Philippines.

A streamlined version of the full-scale musical Narnia (adapted by Jules Tasca, with music by Thomas Tierney and lyrics by Ted Drachman) currently tours the US with TheatreworksUSA [7]. The full-scale and touring versions of the musical are licensed through Dramatic Publishing [8]; who also license adaptations of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe by Joseph Robinette and The Magician's Nephew by Aurand Harris.

A licensed musical stage adaptation of The Voyage of the Dawn Treader made its world premiere in 1983 by Northwestern College (Minnesota) at the Totino Fine Arts Center. Script adaptation by Wayne Olson, with original music score by Kevin Norberg.

Theatrical productions of "The Chronicles of Narnia" have become popular with professional, community and youth theatres in recent years. A musical version of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe written specifically for performance by youth is available through Josef Weinberger [9]. Production notes can be found on the NODA website.

Cinema

Main article: The Chronicles of Narnia film series

Logo made for the film''

A film version of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, titled , produced by Walden Media and distributed by Walt Disney Pictures was released in December 2005. It was directed by Andrew Adamson. The screenplay was written by Ann Peacock. Principal photography for the film took place in Poland, Czech Republic and New Zealand. Major Visual Effects Studios like Rhythm and Hues Studios, Sony Pictures Imageworks, ILM and many more worked on the VFX for the movie. The movie achieved critical and box office success. Disney is producing a sequel with an expected release date of May 16, 2008.

Music

A musical retelling of the The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was released in 1980 by Contemporary Christian group 2nd Chapter of Acts entitled, The Roar of Love.

Further reading

• Bruner, Kurt & Ware, Jim. Finding God in the Land of Narnia. Tyndale House Publishers, 2005.
• Bustard, Ned. The Chronicles of Narnia Comprehension Guide. Veritas Press, 2004.
• Ditchfield, Christin. A Family Guide to Narnia: Biblical Truths in C.S. Lewis's the Chronicles of Narnia. Crossway Books, 2003.
• Duriez, Colin. A Field Guide to Narnia. InterVarsity Press, 2004.
• Ford, Paul. Companion to Narnia, Revised Edition. HarperSanFrancisco, revised edition 2005.
• Jacobs, Alan. The Narnian: The Life and Imagination of C.S. Lewis. HarperSanFrancisco, 2005.
• McIntosh, Kenneth. Following Aslan: A Book of Devotions for Children. Anamchara Books, 2006.
• Wagner, Richard. C.S. Lewis & Narnia For Dummies. For Dummies, 2005.
• A Guide for Using The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe in the Classroom. Teacher Created Resources, 2000.
• The Lion, Witch & Wardrobe Study Guide. Progeny Press, 1993.
• The Magician's Nephew Study Guide. Progeny Press, 1997.
• Prince Caspian Study Guide. Progeny Press, 2003.
• Williams, Thomas. The Heart of the Chronicles of Narnia: Knowing God Here by Finding Him There. W Publishing Group, 2005.

References

• Anderson, R.J. (2005), "The Problem of Susan", Parabolic Reflections
• BBC News, Staff (2005), "Pullman attacks Narnia film plans", BBC News 2005(16 October)
• Brady, Erik (2005), "A Closer Look at the World of 'Narnia'", The USA Today
• Campbell, Joseph (1972), The Hero With a Thousand Faces, ISBN 0-691-01784-0
• Campbell, Joseph (1991), The Masks of God: Occidental Mythology, ISBN 0-14-019441-X
• Chattaway, Peter T. (2005), Narnia 'baptizes' — and defends — pagan mythology, Canadian Christianity, ISBN
• Dodd, Celia (2004), "Human nature: Universally acknowledged", The Times 2004(05-08)
• Dorsett, Lyle & Marjorie Mead (1996), C. S. Lewis' Letters to Children, Scribner, ISBN 0-684-82372-1
• Ezard, John (2002), "Narnia books attacked as racist and sexist", The Guardian 2002(6-3)
• Ford, Paul (2005), Companion to Narnia, Revised Edition, SanFrancisco: Harper, ISBN 0-06-079127-6
• Gaiman, Neil (2004), The Problem of Susan (in Flights Vol. II edited by Al Sarrantonio), New York: New American Library, ISBN 0-451-46099-5
• Gopnik, Adam (2005), "Prisoner of Narnia", The New Yorker
• Grossman, Lev (2005), "J.K. Rowling Hogwarts And All", Time 166(4)
• Goldthwaite, John, The Natural History of Make-believe: A Guide to the Principal Works of Britain, Europe and America: OUP 1996, ISBN-10: 0195038061, ISBN-13: 978-0195038064
• Guthmann, Edward (2005), "'Narnia' tries to cash in on dual audience", San Francisco Chronicle
• Hensher, Philip (1998), "Don't let your children go to Narnia: C.S. Lewis's books are racist and misogynist", The Independent(London)
• Holbrook, David, The Skeleton in the Wardrobe: C.S.Lewis' Fantasies — A Phenomenological Study: Bucknell University Press, 1991, ISBN-10: 0838751830, ISBN-13: 978-0838751831
• Drama: 'Narnia' A Children's Musical., Stephen Holden, New York Times, 5 October 1986
• Hurst, Josh (2005), Nine Minutes of Narnia, Christianity Today
• Jacobs, Alan (2005), "The professor, the Christian, and the storyteller", The Boston Globe
• Jacobs, Tom (2004), Remembering a Master Mythologist and His Connection to Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara: Santa Barbara News-Press, ISBN
• Kelly, Clint (2006), "Dear Mr. Lewis", Response 29(1)
• Kent, Keri Wyatt (2005), "Talking Narnia to Your Neighbors", Christianity Today (no. November/December)
• Kjos, Berit (2005), Narnia: Blending Truth and Myth, Kjos Ministries
• Lewis, C.S. (1994), God in the Dock: Essays on Theology and Ethics, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 0802808689
• Lewis, C.S.; Giovanni Calabria & Martin Moynihan (1998), The Latin Letters of C.S. Lewis: C.S. Lewis and Don Giovanni Calabria, St. Augustine's Press, ISBN 1890318345
• MacDonald, Dennis R. (2000), The Homeric Epics and the Gospel of Mark, IISBN 0-300-08012-3
• MacDonald, Dennis R. (2003), Does the New Testament Imitate Homer?, IISBN 0-300-09770-0
• McIntosh, Kenneth (2006), Following Aslan: A Children's Book of Devotions, Anamchara, ISBN 1-933630-02-7
• Martindale, Wayne & Jerry Root (1990), The Quotable Lewis, Tyndale House, ISBN 0-8423-5115-9
• Nelson, Michael (2005), "For the Love of Narnia", The Chronicle of Higher Education 52(15): B14
• The Lion King: C.S. Lewis' Narnia isn't simply a Christian allegory., Meghan O'Rourke, Slate magazine, 9 December 2005
• Paterson, Katherine (2006), Katherine Paterson: On Her Own Words, Walden Media
• Pullman, Philip (1998), "The Darkside of Narnia", The Guardian http://web.archive.org/web/20010628221443/http://riff.hiof.no/~steinabl/PULLMANLEW.HTML
• Rilstone, Andrew (2004), What Order Should I Read the Narnia Books in
• Rilstone, Andrew (2005), "Lipstick on My Scholar", The Life and Opinions of Andrew Rilstone
• Smith, Neil (2005), "Narnia Christian link played down", BBC News
• Toynbee, Polly (2005), "Narnia represents everything that is most hateful about religion", The Guardian
• Trotter, Drew (2005), What Did C. S. Lewis Mean, and Does It Matter? A Preview of The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe (Film), LeadershipU, ISBN
• Vulliamy, Ed (2001), "Author Puts Bible Belt To The Test", The Guardian
• Wilson, Tracy (2005), "How Narnia Works", How Stuff Works

See also

•  • [ e] The Chronicles of Narnia by C. S. Lewis
	The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe Prince Caspian The Voyage of the Dawn Treader The Silver Chair The Horse and His Boy The Magician's Nephew The Last Battle
	Peter Susan Edmund Lucy Eustace Jill Digory Polly Caspian Aslan Shasta Aravis White Witch Puddleglum All characters All creatures
	Narnia Archenland Cair Paravel Calormen Charn Lone Islands Telmar Wood between the Worlds Aslan's How Aslan's Country All places
	BBC serial Disney films First Battle of Beruna Dawn Treader Deplorable Word Timeline

External links

• Narnia Brazil
• Official site of the books
• Official site of the movies