The Turkic peoples are a group of peoples residing in northern, central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. These peoples share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. The term Turkic thus represents a broad, ethno-linguistic group of people and includes existing cultures such as the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz and Turkish people, as well as historical societies such as the Seljuq and Timurid. Although usually referring to the citizens of Turkey, the word Turks may also be used loosely to refer to all Turkic peoples. The adjective Turkish, on the other hand, usually specifically refers to the Turkish language, the citizens of Turkey, or Turkish-speaking people of Turkish ethnicity.

The term Turkic as a common reference to various Turkic-speaking people began its spread after the appearance of the Turkic Kaganate in the sixth century, and did not gain a universal acceptance among some Turkic peoples until influenced by European nationalistic concepts of the nineteenth century. Prior to that, various Turkic-speaking people were known under different general ethnic names. The etymology of the base word Turk has a few competing generic explanations.

The family of Turkic languages is a subdivision of the Altaic language group and is one of the most geographically widespread in the world, being spoken in a vast region ranging from Europe to Siberia.

Geographical distribution

The Turkic linguistic family has many branches, and the total population of Turkic speakers worldwide is around 140 million.^[1] More than one third of these are ethnic Turks of Turkey, dwelling predominantly in Turkey proper and formerly Ottoman-dominated areas of Eastern Europe and West Asia; as well as in Western Europe, Australia and the Americas as a result of immigration. The remainder of the Turkic peoples are concentrated in Central Asia, Russia, the Caucasus, China, and northern and northwestern Iran.

At present, there are six independent Turkic ((fact)) countries: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Turkey, and Uzbekistan. There are also several Turkic national subdivisions in the Russian Federation including Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, Chuvashia, Khakassia, Tuva, Yakutia, the Altai Republic, the Altai Krai, Kabardino-Balkaria, and Karachayevo-Cherkessiya. Each of these subdivisions has its own flag, parliament, laws, and official state language (in addition to Russian).

The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in western China and the autonomous region of Gagauzia, located within eastern Moldova and bordering Ukraine to the north, are two major autonomous Turkic regions. The Autonomous Republic of Crimea within Ukraine is a home of Crimean Tatars. In addition, there are several Turkic-inhabited regions in Iran, Iraq, Georgia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Greece,Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and western Mongolia.

Migrations

Main article: Turkic migrations

According to early historians the Turkic people and the related groups migrated west towards Eastern Europe, Persia and Anatolia. ^[2] Turks or Turkish people are among those who migrated early from what is known today as Mongolia to modern Turkey but also among the late-arrival peoples; they also participated in the Crusades. ^[3] After many battles they established their own state and later created the Ottoman Empire; their tactics were all-out sieges and invasions. ^[4]

Turkic roots

The first historical text to mention the Turks was from the standpoint of the Chinese, who mentioned trade of Turk tribes with the Sogdians along the Silk Road ^[5]. The Xiongnu mentioned in Han Dynasty records may have been Proto-Turkic speakers.^{[6][7][8][9][10]} Another viewpoint is that the Xiongnu language was Samoyedic rather than Turkic.^[11][12] The first recorded use of "Turk" as a political name is a sixth-century reference to the word now pronounced in Modern Chinese as Tujue. It is believed that some Turkic tribes, such as Khazars and Pechenegs, probably lived as nomads for many years before establishing a political state (Göktürk empire). Turkic peoples originally used their own alphabets, like Orkhon and Yenisey runiform, and later the Uyghur alphabet. The oldest inscription was found near the Issyk river in Kazakhstan and has been dated to 500 BC. The traditional national and cultural symbols of the Turkic peoples include the star and crescent, used as a symbol of Turks since pre-Islamic times^[13] when they practised Shamanism; wolves, a part of Turkic mythology and tradition; as well as the color blue, iron, and fire.

In the age of nationalism, Turkic speakers were among the first Muslim peoples to take up Western ideas of liberalism and secular ideologies. Pan-Turkism first sprang up at the end of the nineteenth century in the Russian Empire and was advanced by leading Turkic intellectuals like Crimean Tatar İsmail Gaspıralı, Azerbaijan philosophers like Mirza Fatali Akhundov and Tatar Yusuf Akçura, as a reaction to Panslavist and Russification policies of the Russian Empire. The first fully democratic and secular republics in the Islamic world were Turkic: the ill-fated Idel-Ural State established in 1917, the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918 (both annexed and absorbed by the Soviet Union), and in 1923 Republic of Turkey. In 1991 Azerbaijan became an independent Azerbaijan Republic.

Nomenclature

In modern Turkey, a distinction is made between "Turks" and the "Turkic peoples": the term Türk corresponds specifically to the people of Turkey and culture, while the term Türki refers generally to modern Turkic peoples and cultures.

Some claim that this distinction is an artificial one, and one not made by speakers of Turkic languages elsewhere. It is sometimes claimed further that much of the separation is the result of Stalinism, and that prior to the founding of the Soviet Union, the term "Turkish" had been used to describe all Turkic peoples as part of a greater family. Others counter that this argument is without basis, and only used to support the racial theories of Pan-Turkism, pointing out that the differences among the separate governmental administrations, as well as cultural, religious, historical, and even racial differences, are too great to speak of any political unity. However, those ideas do not refute the claim that "Turkish" is a term for all Turkic peoples. For one thing, the claim that "Turkish" had been used to represent Turkic peoples at large is not necessarily used to support racist ideas. It is also not a political claim and does not necessarily belong to people who want political union of Turks. It is basically a historical claim that is mostly supported by Turkish nationalists.

The first known mention of the term Turk applied to a Turkic group was in reference to the Göktürks in the sixth century. A letter by the Chinese Emperor written to a Göktürk Khan named Ishbara in 585 described him as "the Great Turk Khan." The Orhun inscriptions (AD 735) use the terms Turk and Turuk.

Previous use of similar terms are of unknown significance, although some strongly feel that they are evidence of the historical continuity of the term and the people as a linguistic unit since early times. This includes a Chinese record of 1328 BC referring to a neighbouring people as Tu-Kiu.

Traditions about nomenclature

In the ancient Zoroastrian texts of the Avesta, one of the grandsons of Yima (comparable to Noah as the sole survivor of a catastrophe that depopulated the Earth) is named "Tur" or "Tura"—the supposed ancestor of the so-called "Turanian" peoples, a term used in Ancient Iran for all the inhabitants of Central Asia. The term "Turanian" is sometimes said to be derived from Old-Iranian word tork or tark (today:târik), meaning 'dark' (in reference to how the West Iranians saw the lands to their north as a mysterious "land of darkness"); however, claims that there is any etymological connection to the word "Turk" are hotly disputed among various historians. This traditional Persian genealogy has been confused by some with the late sixteenth century Mughal (Indian) work Akbarnama by Abul-Fazel, where he recounts certain Islamic traditions making "Turk" the oldest son of Japheth and grandson of Noah; also, in the nineteenth century, it was common in Christian circles to equate the ancestor of the Turks with Togarmah, grandson of Japheth in Genesis 10.



According to Mahmud of Kashgar, an eleventh century Turkic scholar, and various other traditional Islamic scholars and historians, the name "Turk" stems from Tur, one of the sons of Japheth, and comes from the same lineage as Gomer (Cimmerians) and Ashkenaz (Scythians, Ishkuz) who, according to tradition, were some of the earliest Turks (most modern scholars believe these tribes to have been Iranian). A similar name, Dur, appears in mediaeval Hungarian legend as a legendary chieftain of the Caucasian Alans (Arran, Iron) whose daughters supposedly bred with the Magyar ancestors Hunor and Magor.

In the Divan ul-Lughat at-Turk (Turkic dictionary) of Mahmud of Kashgar, Alp Er Tunga, is identified with the character Afrasiab ("Frangasyan" in the Avesta) in Persian literature, a descendant of the character named Tur in the Persian epic Shahnameh. Alp Er Tunga is a mythical hero in Turkic tradition; the Göktürks of the sixth century carried on the tradition of Alp Er Tunga and they too had a myth according to which they themselves were descendants of a wolf.

History

Main article: History of the Turkic peoples

It is generally believed that the first Turkic people were native to a region extending from the Caspian Sea in the west across Central Asia-Turkestan to Mongolia in the east, Siberia-Altai in the north, and Kashmir in the south. Some scholars contend that the Huns were one of the earlier Turkic tribes, while others support either a Mongolic or Finno-Ugric origin for the Huns.^[14] The main migration of Turks, who were among the ancient inhabitants of Turkestan, occurred in medieval times, when they spread across most of Asia and into Europe and the Middle East.^[15]

The precise date of the initial expansion from the early homeland remains unknown. The first state known as "Turk", giving its name to many states and peoples afterwards, was that of the Göktürks (gog = "blue" or "celestial") in the sixth century AD. The head of the Asena clan led his people from Li-jien (modern Zhelai Zhai) to the Juan Juan seeking inclusion in their confederacy and protection from China. His tribe were famed metal smiths and were granted land near a mountain quarry which looked like a helmet, from which they were said to have gotten their name 突厥(tūjué). A century later their power had increased such that they conquered the Juan Juan and set about establishing their Gök Empire.^[15] Later Turkic peoples include the Karluks (mainly eighth century), Uyghurs, Kyrgyz, Oghuz (or Ğuz) Turks, and Turkmens. As these peoples were founding states in the area between Mongolia and Transoxiana, they came into contact with Muslims, and most gradually adopted Islam. However, there were also (and still are) small groups of Turkic people belonging to other religions, including Christians, Jews (Khazars), Buddhists, and Zoroastrians.

Turkic soldiers in the army of the Abbasid caliphs emerged as the de facto rulers of most of the Muslim Middle East (apart from Syria and Egypt), particularly after the tenth century. The Oghuz and other tribes captured and dominated various countries under the leadership of the Seljuk dynasty and eventually captured the territories of the Abbasid dynasty and the Byzantine Empire.^[15]

Meanwhile, the Kyrgyz and Uyghurs were struggling with one another and with the Chinese Empire. The Kyrgyz people ultimately settled in the region now referred to as Kyrgyzstan. The Tatar peoples conquered the Volga Bulgars in what is today Tatarstan, following the westward sweep of the Mongols under Genghis Khan in the thirteenth century. The Bulgars were thus mistakenly called Tatars by the Russians. Native Tatars live only in Asia; European "Tatars" are in fact Bulgars. Other Bulgars settled in Europe in the seventh-8th centuries, and were assimilated into the Slavic population after adopting what eventually became the Slavic Bulgarian language. Everywhere, Turkic groups mixed with the local populations to varying degrees.^[15]

As the Seljuk Empire declined following the Mongol invasion, the Ottoman Empire emerged as the new important Turkic state, that came to dominate not only the Middle East, but even southeastern Europe, parts of southwestern Russia, and northern Africa.^[15]

The Ottoman Empire gradually grew weaker in the face of maladministration, repeated wars with Russia and Austro-Hungary, and the emergence of nationalist movements in the Balkans, and it finally gave way after World War I to the present-day republic of Turkey.^[15]

Language

Main article: Turkic languages

The Turkic language family is often considered to belong to the Altaic language group. The various Turkic languages are usually considered in geographical groupings, since high mobility and intermixing of Turkic peoples in history makes an exact classification extremely difficult: Oghuz (or Southwestern) languages, Kypchak (or Northwestern) languages, Eastern languages (like Uygur) and Northern languages (like Altay and Yakut) and divergent languages like Chuvash.

Religion

Main articles: Islam in Azerbaijan, Zoroastrianism in Azerbaijan, Islam in Uzbekistan, Islam in Turkmenistan, Islam in Turkey, Islam in Cyprus, Islam in Kazakhstan, and Islam in Russia

Various pre-Islamic Turkic civilizations of the sixth century adhered to Shamanist and Tengriist traditions. The Shamanist religion is based on spiritual and natural elements of earth. Tengriism involves belief in Tengri as the god who ruled over the skies. These civilizations also followed the Zoroastrian religion, especially in Azerbaijan, as well as Buddhism and Judaism.

Today, most Turks are Sunni Muslims. These include the majority of Balkan Turks, Balkars, Bashkorts, Crimean Tatars, Karachay, Kazaks, Kumuk, Kyrgyz, Nogay, Tatars (Kazan Tatars), Turkmens, Turks of Turkey, Uygurs, Yellow (Sari) Uygurs, and Uzbeks. The Azerbaijanis of the Republic of Azerbaijan and Iranian Azerbaijan are the only major Turkic-speaking people that traditionally adhere to the Shia sect of Islam. The Qashqay nomads and Khorasani Turks as well as various Turkic tribes spread across Iran are also Shia Muslims. The Alevis of Turkey are the largest religious minority in the country. Even though it is claimed that they believe in a doctrine of Islam that is closely related to that of the Shia school of thought, Shias regard Alevis as heretics.

The major Christian-Turkic peoples are the Chuvash of Chuvashia and the Gagauz (Gökoğuz) of Moldova. Many Karaim Turks of Eastern Europe are Jewish, and there are Turks of Jewish backgrounds who live in major cities such as Istanbul, Ankara and Baku. In the Siberian region, the Altay, some Tuvan and Hakas are Tengriist, having kept the original religion of Turkic peoples. The Yakuts of Yakutia in northeastern Siberia are traditionally Shamanists, yet many have converted to Christianity. The Sari Uygurs (Yellow Uygurs) of western China, as well as the Tuvans of Russia are the only remaining Buddhist Turkic peoples. In addition, there are small scattered populations of Turks belonging to other religions such as the Bahá'í Faith and Zoroastrianism.

Even though many Turkic peoples became Muslims under the influence of Sufis, often of Shi'a persuasion, most Turkic people today are Sunni Muslims—although a significant number in Turkey are Alevis. Alevi Turks, who were once primarily dwelling in eastern Anatolia, are today concentrated in major urban centers in western Turkey with the increased urbanism.

The traditional religion of the Chuvash of Russia, while contanining many ancient Turkic concepts, also shares some elements with Zoroastrism, Khazar Judaism, and Islam. The Chuvash religious calendar cycle and the agrarian cult that it was based on combined ancestor worship and worship of earth, water and vegetation. The Chuvash converted to Eastern Orthodox Christianity for the most part in the second half of the nineteenth century. As a result, festivals and rites were made to coincide with Orthodox feasts, and Christian rites replaced their traditional counterparts. A minority of the Chuvash still profess their traditional faith [1].

The Gagauz people of Moldova are largely Christians.

There are Turkic-speaking groups of Jews, such as the Crimean Karaites.

Some Turkic peoples (particularly in the Russian autonomous regions and republics of Altay, Khakassia, and Tuva) are largely Tengriists. Tengriism was the predominant religion of the different Turkic branches prior to the eighth century, when the majority accepted Islam.

There are also a few Buddhist (e.g. Tuvans), Jewish, Zoroastrian, and Bahá'í Turkic peoples today.

Remark: The name Tengri has been changed to Tanrı in modern Turkish (as spoken in Turkey), the same as in Azeri, literally meaning "God" in English. However, traditionally, God is referred to as Allah in most daily usage. The word tengri / tanrı is still in use by citizens of Azerbaijan and Turkey, where Islam is the dominant religion.

Geographical distribution and ethnic division

The distribution of peoples of Turkic cultural background ranges from Siberia, where the Yakuts reside, across Central Asia, to Eastern Europe. Presently, the largest groups of Turkic people live throughout Central Asia—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Azerbaijan, in addition to Turkey. Additionally, Turkic peoples are found within Crimea, the Xinjiang region of western China, northern Iraq, Iran, Israel, Russia, Afghanistan, Cyprus, and the Balkans: Moldova, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, and former Yugoslavia. A small number of Turkic people also live in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. There are also considerable populations of Turkic people (originating mostly from Turkey) in Germany, United States, and Australia, largely because of migrations during the twentieth century.

An exact line between the different Turkic peoples cannot easily be drawn. The following is a non-comprehensive list of the major groups:

• Altays (Oirots)
• Azerbaijanis
• Balkars (along with Karachays, speakers of the Karachay-Balkar language)
• Bashkirs
• Chulyms
• Chuvashs
• Crimean Tatars
• Dolgans
• Gagauz
• Iraqi Turkmen
• Karachays (along with Balkars, speakers of the Karachay-Balkar language)
• Crimean Karaites
• Karakalpaks
• Karapapak
• Kazakhs
• Khakas
• Khazars
• Krymchaks (speak a modified form of Crimean Tatar)
• Kumyks
• Kyrgyz
• Meskhetian Turks
• Mongols
• Nogais
• Qashqai
• Salar
• Tatars
• Volga Tatars (or Kazan Tatars, or simply Tatars)
• Nağaybäklär
• Baltic Tatars
• Siberian Tatars
• Lipka Tatars
• Tofalars
• Turkmens
• Turks of Turkey (see also Ottoman Turks or Seljuk Turk)
• Turkish Cypriots
• Tuvans
• Uyghur
• Uzbeks
• Yakuts
• Yörüks

Some divide the above into six branches: the Oghuz Turks, Kipchak, Karluk, Siberian, Chuvash, and Sakha/Yakut branches. The Oghuz have been termed Western Turks, while the remaining five, in such a classificatory scheme, are called Eastern Turks.

One of the major difficulties perceived by many who try to classify the various Turkic languages and dialects is the impact Soviet and particularly Stalinist nationality policies—the creation of new national demarcations, suppression of languages and writing scripts, and mass deportations—had on the ethnic mix in previously multicultural regions like Khwarezm, the Fergana Valley, and Caucasia. Many of the above-mentioned classifications are therefore by no means universally accepted, either in detail or in general. Another aspect often debated is the influence of Pan-Turkism, and the emerging nationalism in the newly independent Central Asian republics, on the perception of ethnic divisions.

Physical appearance

Some historians consider "Turkic" as a linguistic categorization rather than a strictly ethnic characterization. This is not surprising, since Turkic peoples often differ greatly from one another in physical appearance, reflecting the abundant migrations, conquests, and settlements across Eurasia. Therefore, the already considerable problems involved in any racial classification are made much more difficult in the case of the Turks.

The Turkic peoples possess physical features ranging from Caucasoid race to Northern Mongoloid race.

In western Turkic lands, such as Turkey and Azerbaijan, a great many people look "European" and "Mediterranean". In Turkey, people with light-coloured eyes such as blue, green, hazel, or gray and blond or brown hair are common. Caucasoid and Mongoloid facial structure is common among some Central Asian Turkic groups, such as Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Turkmen.

There has been much debate about the racial nature of the original Turkic-speaking ancestors, with some in the past presuming a "Ural-Altaic race" with Caucasoid features at one end of the spectrum and Mongoloid features at the other. It is, however, widely accepted that Turkic linguistic roots are Altaic, i.e. originating in present-day Russia, West China, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan, and it may be that they have more relation to Uralic peoples than previously thought. In recent times, linguists have tended to separate the old Ural-Altaic language group in two. Turkic languages now sit alongside Altaic and Tungusic, and Finnish and Hungarian sitting alongside Uralic.

Gallery

Performing Azeri musicians	Turkish folk dancers in Ardahan	Qashqai caravan halt	Crimean Tatar soldier fighting with the soldier of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Uyghur woman in Hotan	Tuvan family in traditional clothing

References

Further reading

• Chavannes, Édouard (1900): Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux. Paris, Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient. Reprint: Taipei. Cheng Wen Publishing Co. 1969.
• Findley, Carter Vaughn. 2005. The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516770-8; 0-19-517726-6 (pbk.)
• Charles Warren Hostler, The Turks of Central Asia, (Greenwood Press, November 1993), ISBN 0-275-93931-6
• H.B. Paksoy ALPAMYSH: Central Asian Identity under Russian Rule (Hartford: AACAR, 1989)
• http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/texts/carrie_books/paksoy-1/
• Peter B. Golden, An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples: Ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East, (Otto Harrassowitz (Wiesbaden) 1992) ISBN 3-447-03274-X
• Colin Heywood, The Turks (The Peoples of Europe), (Blackwell 2005), ISBN 978-0631158974

See also

• Pan-Turanism
• Pan-Turkism
• Chigils Turks
• Shatuo Turks
• Turkic European
• Turkic languages
• Turkic migrations
• Turkic states and empires
• Turko-Iranian
• Turkology

External links

• Turkic Cultures and Children's Festival, Turkic Fest
• Encyclopedia Britanica 1911 Edition
• turkicworld
• Ethnographic maps
• International Turcology and Turkish History Research Symposium
• Istanbul Kültür University
• Examples of traditional Turkish and Ottoman Clothing
• Türkçekent Orientaal's links for Turkish Language Learning
• Türkçestan Orientaal's links to Turkic languages
• Ural-Altaic-Sumerian Etymological Dictionary
• Crimean Tatar Internet Resources
• Crimean Tatar Web Site
• Kemal's Crimean Tatar Web Site with Crimean Tatar Language Resources
• Murad Adji's site Contains books in English

New DNA Results

• "Probable ancestors of Hungarian ethnic groups: an admixture analysis"C. R. GUGLIELMINO1, A. DE SILVESTRI2 and J. BERES
• MtDNA and Y chromosome polymorphisms in Hungary: inferences from the Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Uralic influences on the modern Hungarian gene pool

•  • [ e] Turkic-speaking regions
Federal subjects of Russia shown in italics
Western Turkic  Azerbaijan1  Gagauzia (Moldova)  Kazakhstan  Uzbekistan Eastern Turkic  Altai Republic  Altai Republic  Bashkortostan  Kabardino-Balkaria  Kabardino-Balkaria  Xinjiang (China (PRC))  Khakassia  Chuvashia  Chuvashia  Chuvashia  Kyrgyzstan  Northern Cyprus2  Karakalpakstan (Uzbekistan)  Karakalpakstan  Sakha Republic
1 Includes the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic.    2 Recognized only by Turkey; see Cyprus dispute.