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Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and/or video signals which transmit programs to an audience. The audience may be the general public or a relatively large sub-audience, such as children or young adults. Even senior citizens sometimes watch programs transmitted to an audience.

There are wide variety of broadcasting systems, all of which have different capabilities. The largest broadcasting systems are institutional public address systems, which transmit nonverbal messages and music within a school or hospital, and low-powered broadcasting systems which transmit radio stations or television stations to a small area. National radio and television broadcasters have nationwide coverage, using retransmitter towers, satellite systems, and cable distribution. Satellite radio and television broadcasters can cover even wider areas, such as entire continents, and Internet channels can distribute text or streamed music worldwide.

The sequencing of content in a broadcast is called a schedule. As with all technological endeavors, a number of technical terms and slang have developed. A list of these terms can be found at list of broadcasting terms. Television and radio programs are distributed through radio broadcasting or cable, often both simultaneously. By coding signals and having decoding equipment in homes, the latter also enables subscription-based channels and pay-per-view services.

The term "broadcast" was coined by early radio engineers from the midwestern United States. Broadcasting forms a very large segment of the mass media. Broadcasting to a very narrow range of audience is called narrowcasting.

Economically there are a few ways in which stations are able to continually broadcast. Each differs in the method by which stations are funded:

• in-kind donations of time and skills by volunteers (common with community broadcasters)
• direct government payments or operation of public broadcasters
• indirect government payments, such as radio and television licenses
• grants from foundations or business entities
• selling advertising or sponsorships
• public subscription or membership
• fees charged to all owners of TV sets or radios, regardless of whether they intend to receive that program or not (an approach used in the UK)

Broadcasters may rely on a combination of these business models. For example, National Public Radio, a non-commercial network within the United States, receives grants from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (which in turn receives funding from the U.S. government), by public membership, and by selling "extended credits" to corporations.

Recorded broadcasts and live broadcasts

One can record and live broadcasts. The former allows correcting errors, and removing superfluous or undesired material, rearranging it, applying slow-motion and repetitions, and other techniques to enhance the program. However some live events like sports telecasts can include some of the aspects including slow motion clips of important goals/hits etc in between the live telecast.

American radio network broadcasters habitually forbade prerecorded broadcasts in the 1930s and 1940s, requiring radio programs played for the Eastern and Central time zones to be repeated three hours later for the Pacific time zone. This restriction was dropped for special occasions, as in the case of the German dirigible airship Hindenburg at Lakehurst, New Jersey in 1937. During World War II, prerecorded broadcasts from war correspondents were allowed on U.S. radio. In addition, American radio programs were recorded for playback by Armed Forces Radio stations around the world.

A disadvantage of recording first is that the public may know the outcome of an event from another source, which may be a spoiler. In addition, prerecording prevents live announcers from deviating from an officially-approved script, as occurred with propaganda broadcasts from Germany in the 1940s and with Radio Moscow in the 1980s.

Many events are advertised as being live, although they are often "recorded live" (sometimes this is referred to as "live-to-tape"). This is particularly true of performances of musical artists on radio when they visit for an in-studio concert performance. This intentional blurring of the distinction between live and recorded media is viewed with chagrin among many music lovers. Similar situations have sometimes appeared in television ("The Cosby Show is recorded in front of a live studio audience").

A broadcast may be distributed through several physical means. If coming directly from the studio at a single radio or tv station, it is simply sent through the air chain to the transmitter and thence from the antenna on the tower out to the world. Programming may also come through a communications satellite, played either live or recorded for later transmission. Networks of stations may simulcast the same programming at the same time, originally via microwave link, and now mostly by satellite.

Distribution to stations or networks may also be through physical media, such as analogue or digital videotape, CD, DVD, and sometimes other formats. Usually these are included in another broadcast, such as when electronic news gathering returns a story to the station for inclusion on a news programme.

The final leg of broadcast distribution is how the signal gets to the listener or viewer. It may come over the air as with a radio station or TV station to an antenna and receiver, or may come through cable TV [1] or cable radio (or "wireless cable") via the station or directly from a network. The Internet may also bring either radio or TV to the recipient, especially with multicasting allowing the signal and bandwidth to be shared.

The term "broadcast network" is often used to distinguish networks that broadcast an over-the-air television signal that can be received using a television antenna from so-called networks that are broadcast only via cable or satellite television. The term "broadcast television" can refer to the programming of such networks.

Broadcasting : Reducing Space and Time Boundaries

With the development of technology and broadcasting , induviduals were now able to communicate over the vast streches of time and distance. Face-to-face interaction boundaries were now removed by waves and signals , which delivered information through radios , television and many other communication devices.

As John Thompson states , the "uncoupling of space and time" has happened with the invention of broadcasting technology , the spatial distanciation , as he defines it , no longer required temporal distanciation . It became possible to experience same events , at the same time without being physically present at the location , where an event was unfolding . Many centuries ago , the only source of knowledge were stories , which were handed from father to son and from generation to generation . The stories of revolutions , major events were mostly delivered by someone who experienced it all personally , whereas now , with the development of broadcastin , most people derive the knowledge from radio , TV and books . The factor that people do that , creates a sense of common identity , or as John Thompson in his book " The Media and Modernity " states "creates a sense of mediated worldliness " , which lies beyond someone's personal experiences and observations .

As an effect of that , the sense of time and distance suddenly became dependent on speed of connection and different gadgets , which allowed us to communicate faster than before . The whole world became a much "smaller" place than it used to be many years ago , where now everyone can access different events no matter how far one's location is .

To conclude , this reduction of space and time brought about many changes , which affect human's lives nowadays . Businesses grew faster , communication , which was used to be intimate and personal became more impersonal and the ways that we learn has totally changed .

The Impact of Broadcasting

Jock Given (2003) emphasized that, “Broadcasting is not merely a technology or even a group of technologies, but a set of social, cultural and commercial practices, institutional forms, an industry and some enduring ideas.” Therefore, we should pay attention on the many important ways in which broadcasting has enabled developments in our experiences of mediated communication, and space & time.

First of all, broadcasting brought about space and time compression, allowing information and culture to reach a vast audience (Thompson 1999, p. 13). New technologies of broadcasting such satellites and cables made the transmission of information more flexible, being able to travel at faster speeds and further distances (Thompson 1999, p. 13). The speed of communication therefore becomes instantaneous, making quick acquirement of information routine and common (Thompson 1999, p. 18). As a result, the pace of modern life is much faster than before. Information and communication are not tied down by time and distance, making the world “smaller”.

Radio and television broadcasting also became an important means of economic valorization, for example, through the sale advertising space, licence fee and taxation, and subscription fee for cable and satellite transmission.

Broadcasting brought about the blurred distinction between the public and private domains. Media messages are now open and public, made visible and observable to anyone (Thompson 1999, p. 18). For example, we can receive the news in private places such as our home, office and classroom.

Broadcasting also brought about the feature of live and simultaneous transmission, giving rise to large-scale media events (Thompson 1999, p. 19) such as The Olympic Games, FIFA World Cup, The Royal Wedding of Prince Charles and Lady Diana. The latest and up-to-date information can now be experienced by individuals, no longer tied down by distance and time.

Lastly, broadcasting is the main reason for mediated worldliness. Our sense of the world is increasingly shaped by the media, rather than personal experience (Thompson 1999, p. 21). For example, we get information about other countries, their people, culture and environment, from travel programs and television dramas nowadays. The increasingly availability of media forms have allowed our knowledge to greatly broadened, as we are no longer restricted by the need to be physically present at a place to gain information about the events there (Thompson 1999, p. 21).

The impact of Broadcasting in political aspect

Broadcasting has also played an important role in political aspect. Unlike other media, television not only allows leaders to reach followers, it also allows followers to gain unprecedented access to the close-up appearance and gestures of leaders.^[1] Broadcasting offers direct access to politicians and blurs the line between back stage and front stage of politicians. As a result of broadcasting, the relationship between politicians and people has become closer. From the Monica Lewinsky and Bill Clinton affair to George W. Bush’s bad words to the public, it is undoubting to say that these scandals had been badly widespread by broadcasting. Because of the development of broadcasting, people have been relieved of social world secrets. There are no more secrets about politicians. As Meyrowitz states that the speaker’s platform once lifted politicians up and away from average citizens, both literally and symbolically. But the television camera now lowers politicians to the level of the common citizen and brings them close for our inspection. In recent years, we have seen our presidents sweat, stammer, and stumble- all in living color."^[2]

See also

• Broadcast license
• Broadcasting network
• Cablecast
• Dead air
• European Broadcasting Union (EBU)
• History of broadcasting
• Internet radio
• Internet television
• List of broadcast satellites
• NaSTA
• Nonbroadcast Multiple Access Network (NBMA)
• Outside broadcast
• Radio Act of 1927
• Streaming media
• Television studio

References

• Kahn Frank J., ed. Documents of American Broadcasting, fourth edition (Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1984).
• Lichty Lawrence W., and Topping Malachi C., eds. American Broadcasting: A Source Book on the History of Radio and Television (Hastings House, 1975).
• Thompson, J 1999, ‘The media and modernity’, in Hugh Mackay & Tim O’Sullivan (eds), The media reader: continuity and transformation, Sage, London, pp. 12-27.
• Given, J 2003, Macquarie University: MAS 214 – Media forms: from alphabet to internet study guide 2007. Retrieved October 17, 2007, from http:/ www.media.mq.edu.au/undergrad/course_outlines/mas214.pdf.

External links

• Radio Locator, for American radio station with format, power, and coverage information.
• Arbitron Offers studies on American radio listening habits and basic station information.
• Answers to several questions about radio and television
• TVNewsday, Current news about the U.S. TV broadcasting industry
• Waveguide Broadcasting News
• SWDXER ¨The SWDXER¨ - with general SWL information and radio antenna tips.
• Broadcasting Timeline
• Stories about the inventions of Radio and television
• Middle East Broadcast News — ArabianBusiness.com

Further reading

• Barnouw Erik. The Golden Web (Oxford University Press, 1968); The Sponsor (1978); A Tower in Babel (1966).
• Briggs Asa. The BBC--the First Fifty Years (: Oxford University Press, 1984).
• Briggs Asa. The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom (Oxford University Press, 1961).
• Covert Cathy, and Stevens John L. Mass Media Between the Wars (Syracuse University Press, 1984).
• Douglas B. Craig. Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920-1940 (2005)
• Tim Crook; International Radio Journalism: History, Theory and Practice Routledge, 1998
• John Dunning; On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio Oxford University Press, 1998
• Ewbank Henry and Lawton Sherman P. Broadcasting: Radio and Television (Harper & Brothers, 1952).
• Gibson George H. Public Broadcasting; The Role of the Federal Government, 1919-1976 (Praeger Publishers, 1977).
• Maclaurin W. Rupert. Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry (The Macmillan Company, 1949).
• Robert W. McChesney; Telecommunications, Mass Media, and Democracy: The Battle for the Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928-1935 Oxford University Press, 1994
• Gwenyth L. Jackaway; Media at War: Radio's Challenge to the Newspapers, 1924-1939 Praeger Publishers, 1995
• Lazarsfeld Paul F. The People Look at Radio (University of North Carolina Press, 1946).
• Tom McCourt; Conflicting Communication Interests in America: The Case of National Public Radio Praeger Publishers, 1999
• Peers Frank W. The Politics of Canadian Broadcasting, 1920- 1951 (University of Toronto Press, 1969).
• Alan Taylor. ''We, the media...", The Hollywood Representation of News Broadcasting, 1976-1999, Peter Lang, 2005, pp. 418, ISBN 3631518528
• Ray William B. FCC: The Ups and Downs of Radio-TV Regulation (Iowa State University Press, 1990).
• Rosen Philip T. The Modern Stentors; Radio Broadcasting and the Federal Government 1920-1934 (Greenwood Press, 1980).
• William A. Rugh; Arab Mass Media: Newspapers, Radio, and Television in Arab Politics Praeger, 2004
• Scannell, Paddy, and Cardiff, David. A Social History of British Broadcasting, Volume One, 1922-1939 (Basil Blackwell, 1991).
• Schramm Wilbur, ed. Mass Communications (University of Illinois Press, 1960).
• Schwoch James. The American Radio Industry and Its Latin American Activities, 1900-1939 (University of Illinois Press, 1990).
• Slater Robert. This . . . is CBS: A Chronicle of 60 Years (Prentice Hall, 1988).
• F. Leslie Smith, John W. Wright II, David H. Ostroff; Perspectives on Radio and Television: Telecommunication in the United States Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998
• Sterling Christopher H. Electronic Media, A Guide to Trends in Broadcasting and Newer Technologies 1920-1983 (Praeger, 1984).
• Sterling Christopher, and Kittross John M. Stay Tuned: A Concise History of American Broadcasting (Wadsworth, 1978).
• White Llewellyn. The American Radio (University of Chicago Press, 1947).
• Thompson John. "The Media and Modernity" (Cambridge , Polity Press,1995)

References