A ghost is defined as the apparition of a deceased person, frequently similar in appearance to that person, and usually encountered in places she or he frequented, or in association with the person's former belongings. The word "ghost" may also refer to the spirit or soul of a deceased person, or to any spirit or demon.^[1][2] Ghosts are often associated with hauntings, which is, according to the Parapsychological Association, "the more or less regular occurrence of paranormal phenomena associated with a particular locality (especially a building) and usually attributed to the activities of a discarnate entity; the phenomena may include apparitions, poltergeist disturbances, cold drafts, sounds of footsteps and voices, and various odours."<ref name="parasych" />

Ghosts are a controversial anomalous phenomenon. According to a poll conducted in 2005 by the Gallup Organization, about 32% of Americans believe in the existence of ghosts.^[3] The term ghost has been replaced by apparition in parapsychology, because the word ghost is deemed insufficiently precise.^[4]

Historical background

The belief in ghosts as souls of the departed is closely tied to the ancient concept of animism, which attributed souls to everything in nature, including human beings, animals, plants, rocks, etc. ^[5] As the nineteenth-century anthropologist James Frazer explained in his classic work, The Golden Bough, souls were seen as the creature within that animated the body.

"As the savage commonly explains the processes of inanimate nature by supposing that they are produced by living beings working in or behind the phenomena, so he explains the phenomena of life itself. If an animal lives and moves, it can only be, he thinks, because there is a little animal inside which moves it. If a man lives and moves, it can only be because he has a little man or animal inside, who moves him. The animal inside the animal, the man inside the man, is the soul. And as the activity of an animal or man is explained by the presence of the soul, so the repose of sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance being the temporary, death being the permanent absence of the soul... "^[6]

Although the human soul was sometimes symbolically or literally depicted in ancient cultures as a bird or other animal, it was widely held that the soul was an exact reproduction of the body in every feature, even down to clothing the person wore. This is depicted in artwork from various ancient cultures, including such works as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which shows deceased people in the afterlife appearing much as they did before death, including the style of dress.

Another widespread belief concerning ghosts is that they were composed of a misty, airy, or subtle material. Anthropologists speculate that this may also stem from early beliefs that ghosts were the person within the person, most noticeable in ancient cultures as a person's breath, which upon exhaling in colder climates appears visibly as a white mist.^[5] This belief may have also fostered the metaphorical meaning of "breath" in certain languages, such as the Latin spiritus and the Greek pneuma, which by analogy became extended to mean the soul. In the Bible, God is depicted as animating Adam with a breath. Although the evidence for ghosts is largely anecdotal, the belief in ghosts throughout history has remained widespread and persistent.

In many historical accounts, ghosts were thought to be deceased people looking for vengeance, or imprisoned on earth for bad things they did during life. Most cultures have ghost stories in their mythologies. Many stories from the Middle Ages and the Romantic era rely on the macabre and the fantastic, and ghosts are a major theme in literature from those eras.

Ghost stories date back to ancient times, and can be found in many different cultures. The Chinese philosopher, Mo Tzu (470-391 BC), is quoted as having said:

"The way to find out whether anything exists or not is to depend on the testimony of the ears and eyes of the multitude. If some have heard it or some have seen it then we have to say it exists. If no one has heard it and no one has seen it then we have to say it does not exist. So, then, why not go to some village or some district and inquire? If from antiquity to the present, and since the beginning of man, there are men who have seen the bodies of ghosts and spirits and heard their voices, how can we say that they do not exist? If none have heard them and none have seen them, then how can we say they do? But those who deny the existence of the spirits say: "Many in the world have heard and seen something of ghosts and spirits. Since they vary in testimony, who are to be accepted as really having heard and seen them?" Mo Tzu said: As we are to rely on what many have jointly seen and what many have jointly heard, the case of Tu Po is to be accepted."^[8]

(note: King Hsuan (827-783 BC) executed his minister, Tu Po, on false charges even after being warned that Tu Po's ghost would seek revenge. Three years later, according to historical chronicles, Tu Po's ghost shot and killed Hsuan with a bow and arrow before an assembly of feudal lords.)

One of the earliest known ghost "sightings" in the west took place in Athens, Greece.^[9] Pliny the Younger (c. 63 - 113 AD) described it in a letter to Licinius Sura: Athenodoros Cananites (c. 74 BC – 7 AD), a Stoic philosopher, decided to rent a large, Athenian house, to investigate widespread rumors that it was haunted. Athenodoros staked out at the house that night, and, sure enough, a dishevelled, aged spectre, bound at feet and hands with rattling chains, eventually "appeared". The spirit then beckoned for Athenodoros to follow him; Athenodoros complied, but the ghost soon vanished. The philosopher marked the spot where the old man had disappeared, and, on the next day, advised the magistrates to dig there. The man's shackled bones were reportedly uncovered three years later. After a proper burial, the hauntings ceased.^[10]

Many Eastern religious traditions also subscribe to the concept of ghosts. The Hindu Garuda Purana has detailed information about ghosts.^[11]

The Hebrew Torah and the Bible contain few references to ghosts, associating spiritism with forbidden occult activities cf. Deuteronomy 18:11. The most notable reference is in the First Book of Samuel (I Samuel 28:7-19 KJV), in which a disguised King Saul has the Witch of Endor summon the spirit of Samuel. In the New Testament, Jesus has to persuade the Disciples that he is not a ghost following the resurrection, Matthew 24. In a similar vein, Jesus' followers at first believe him to be a ghost when they see him walking on water.

The Child ballad Sweet William's Ghost recounts the story of a ghost returning to beg a woman to free him from his promise to marry her, as he can not, being dead; her refusal would mean his damnation. This reflects a popular British belief that the dead would haunt their lovers if they took up with a new love without some formal release.^[12]

The Unquiet Grave expresses a belief even more widespread, found in various location over Europe: ghosts can stem from the excessive grief of the living, whose mourning interferes with the dead's peaceful rest.^[13]

Skeptical analysis

Critics of "eyewitness ghost sightings" suggest that limitations of human perception and ordinary physical explanations can account for such sightings; for example, air pressure changes in a home causing doors to slam, or lights from a passing car reflected through a window at night.^[14] Pareidolia, an innate tendency to recognize patterns in random perceptions, can cause people to believe they have seen ghosts.^[15] Reports of ghosts "seen out of the corner of the eye" may be accounted for by the sensitivity of human peripheral vision. According to skeptical investigator Joe Nickell:

...peripheral vision is very sensitive and can easily mislead, especially late at night, when the brain is tired and more likely to misinterpret sights and sounds.^[14]

Nickell also states that a person's belief that a location is haunted may cause them to interpret mundane events as confirmations of a haunting:

Once the idea of a ghost appears in a household . . . no longer is an object merely mislaid. . . . There gets to be a dynamic in a place where the idea that it's haunted takes on a life of its own. One-of-a-kind quirks that could never be repeated all become further evidence of the haunting.^[14]

Sound is thought to be another cause of ghost sightings. Frequencies lower than 20 hertz are called infrasound and are normally inaudible, but British scientists Richard Lord and Richard Wiseman have concluded that infrasound can cause humans to feel a "presence" in the room, or unexplained feelings of anxiety,and/or dread.^[16] Additionally, the symphonic resonance of the eye is around 18 hertz, which may interfere with the eye's normal functions and cause a person to see things that aren't there.

Carbon monoxide poisoning, which can cause powerful auditory and visual hallucinations, depression, and a generalized sensation of illness and dread,^[17]was recognized as a possible explanation for haunted houses as early as 1921.

Another potential explanation of apparitions is that they are hypnagogic hallucinations.

The traditional perception of ghosts wearing clothing is considered illogical, given the supposed spiritual nature of ghosts, suggesting that the basis of what a ghost is said to look like and consist of is quite dependent on preconceptions made by society.^[18] Skeptics also say that, to date, there is no credible scientific evidence that any location is inhabited by spirits of the dead.^[19]

Some researchers, such as Professor Michael Persinger (Laurentian University, Canada), have speculated that changes in geomagnetic fields (created, e.g., by tectonic stresses in the Earth's crust or solar activity) could stimulate the brain's temporal lobes and produce many of the experiences associated with hauntings. This theory has been tested in various ways. Some scientists have examined the relationship between the time of onset of unusual phenomena in allegedly haunted locations and any sudden increases in global geomagnetic activity. Others have investigated whether the location of alleged hauntings is associated with certain types of magnetic activity. Finally, a third strand of work has involved laboratory studies in which stimulation of the temporal lobe with transcerebral magnetic fields has elicited subjective experiences that strongly parallel phenomena associated with hauntings. All of this work is controversial and thus has attracted a large amount of debate and disagreement.^[20]

Popular culture

Ghosts are prominent in the popular cultures of various nations. The ghost story is ubiquitous across all cultures from oral folktales to works of literature.

Perhaps the most recognizable ghost in English literature is the shade of Hamlet's father in the play The Tragical History of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. In Hamlet, it is the ghost that encourages the title character to investigate his "murder most foul" and seek revenge upon King Claudius, the suspected murderer of Hamlet's father.

Possibly the next most famous apparitions are the ghosts of A Christmas Carol, where the ghost of Jacob Marley, The Ghost of Christmas Past, The Ghost of Christmas Present and The Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come help Ebeneezer Scrooge see the error of his ways.

Oscar Wilde's The Canterville Ghost has been adapted for film and television on several occasions. Henry James's The Turn of the Screw has also appeared in a number of adaptations, notably the film The Innocents and Benjamin Britten's opera The Turn of the Screw.

Films including or centering on ghosts are common, and span a variety of genres. American films focused primarily on ghosts include Ghost, Ghostbusters, Ghost Dad, and Casper the Friendly Ghost. Several ghosts appeared in the film and television adaptations of the Stephen King novel The Shining. The Abbott and Costello film The Time of Their Lives featured Lou Costello as an eighteenth century ghost. The 1963 original and 1999 remake of The Haunting suggests ghosts but they are never seen.

For many, recent Japanese cinema represents a high-water mark of the modern ghost story in cinema. A sub-genre of J-Horror, examples include (and other Ju-on films), Ring and sequels, and Loft. Such has been the influence of these films that Hollywood remade a number of them, often within a few years of the original. Thai cinema has also produced several notable ghost stories, including Dek hor, Buppah Rahtree and Nang Nak.

Ghosts can also be found in various television programs that focus on the paranormal, such as the children's animated series Danny Phantom, Ghost Trackers, Truth or Scare, Mystery Hunters and Scooby Doo, although the 'ghosts' here are invariably found out to be very-much-alive villains. Ghostfreak from Ben 10 is another example of a ghost in an animated series. In the Harry Potter series of books and movies, Hogwarts is occupied by several ghosts. The characters of the television show Supernatural fight ghosts and other cryptids. The 1970s British children's series The Ghosts of Motley Hall featured a group of ghosts drawn from several centuries who lived in a decaying manor house. During that decade also began the BBC programme Rentaghost, about an employment agency for spirits. This children's serial remained popular in Britain for many years. 1960s British series Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased) and 2000 remake Randall & Hopkirk (Deceased) concerns two private detectives, one of whom is a ghost. In 2000 and 2001/2 a BBC children's hit series called The Ghost Hunter turned the usual conventions of the ghost story around by allowing two ordinary children to help a child-ghost in his fight against a ghost hunter who wanted to bottle him and steal his spectral energy.

The ghost hunting theme has also become prevalent in reality television series such as Ghost Hunters, Most Haunted, A Haunting, and many others. It is also represented in children's television by such programmes as The Ghost Hunter.

The Grateful Dead adopted their name and iconography from a series of traditional ghost stories known as Grateful Dead (folktale).

One of the odder manifestations in recent years has been a so-called "Ghost in a Bottle" which turned up on Ebay and which, it was reported, singer Michael Jackson wanted to bid on.^[21]

Another example of a television program that has a few episodes featuring ghosts is Buffy the Vampire Slayer, with the episode "Conversations With Dead People", in Season 7, where the First Evil appears to members of the Scooby Gang in the forms of their beloved deceased.

See also

(In alphabetical order)

• Electronic voice phenomenon
• Ghost Hunters
• Ghostbusters
• Hoax
• Holy Spirit
• List of haunted locations
• Parapsychology
• Poltergeist
• Raynham Hall
• Stambovsky v. Ackley
• Stigmatized property
• The Bell Witch
• The Canterville Ghost
• Yūrei

References

External links

• How Stuff Works - Ghosts
• Ghosts and Legends of Niagara Falls Niagara Falls Public Library (Ont.)
• Real UK Ghost Hunts - Paranormal Nights
• Ghost Investigations by Spiritualist author Craig Hamilton-Parker
• The Vengeance of Japanese Ghosts
• Paranormal articles and photographs
• Your Ghost Stories People sharing their ghost experiences

•  • [ e] Parapsychology
Topics	Remote viewing Clairvoyance - Extra-sensory perception - Near-death experience - Psychic - Psychokinesis - Telepathy - Psiology - Ganzfeld experiment - Apparitional experience
Organizations	Society for Psychical Research - American Society for Psychical Research - Parapsychological Association - Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research Laboratory - National Laboratory of Psychical Research - IANDS
People	Dean Radin - Susan Blackmore - Alister Hardy - Ray Hyman - William James - Raymond Moody - Andrew Nichols - Tommaso Palamidessi - James Randi - Joseph Banks Rhine - Rupert Sheldrake - Michael Shermer - Russel Targ - Charles Tart - Jessica Utts - Karl Zener
Publications	Journal of Parapsychology - Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research