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In French, some other Romance Languages, and Turkish, laïcité (pronounced /la.i.si'te/), Turkish: laiklik, Italian: laicità or laicismo, is the concept of a secular state, that is, of the absence of religious interference in government affairs, and vice-versa. While it is thought that no English word captures the exact meaning of "laïcité", which comes from the Greek λαϊκός ("layman"), it is related to the English word "laity" or "laymen," and is sometimes rendered in English as "laicity" or "laicism." Laïcité is a main component of both the liberal and republican traditions in Europe.

The conception of laïcité is based on the respect of freedom of thought and of freedom of religion. Thus, the absence of a state religion and the subsequent separation of the state and Church is considered a prerequisite of such freedom of thought. Laïcité is thus distinct from anti-clericalism, which actively opposes the influence of religion and of the clergy. Laïcité relies on the division between private life, to which its adherents believe religion belongs, and the public sphere, in which each individual, its adherents believe, should appear devoid of ethnic, religious or others particularities, and as a simple citizen equal to all others citizens. According to this conception, the government must refrain from taking positions on religious doctrine and only consider religious subjects from their practical consequences on inhabitants' lives.

Laïcité does not necessarily imply, by itself, any hostility of the government with respect to religion. It is best described a belief that government and political issues should be kept separate from religious organizations and religious issues (as long as the latter do not have notable social consequences). This is meant to protect both the government from any possible interference from religious organizations, and to protect the religious organization from political quarrels and controversies.

Critics of laïcité argue that it is a disguised form of anti-clericalism and that, instead of promoting freedom of thought and freedom of religion, it prevents the believer from observing his or her religion. Another critique is that, in countries historically dominated by one religious tradition, officially withstanding from taking any positions on religious matters favors, de facto, the dominant religious tradition of the relevant country. Thus, they point out that even in the French Fifth Republic (1958-), school holidays follow the Christian liturgical year. However, the Minister of Education has responded to this criticism by giving leave to students for important holidays of their specific religions, while food menus served in secondary schools pay particular attention in ensuring that each religious observer may respect his religion's specific restrictions concerning diets.

France

The principle of laïcité in France is born out through a number of policies. The French government is legally prohibited from recognizing any religion (except for legacy statutes like those of military chaplains and Alsace-Moselle). Instead, it recognizes religious organizations, according to formal legal criteria that do not address religious doctrine:

• whether the sole purpose of the organization is to organize religious activities;
• whether the organization disrupts public order.

Laïcité was first established in public education with the 1880s Jules Ferry laws, voted after the fall of the reactionary Ordre Moral government following the 16 May 1877 crisis.

Laïcité is currently accepted by all of France's mainstream religions. Exceptions include the far-right monarchist reactionaries, who wish to reinstate Catholicism as a state religion with a stronger political role, as well as with some Islamist leaders who do not recognize the superiority of civil law over religious law.

French political leaders, though not prohibited from making religious remarks, generally refrain from demonstrating openly that their policies are directly inspired by religious considerations. Christine Boutin, who openly argued on religious grounds against a legal domestic partnership available regardless of the sex of the partners, including homosexual couples (see PACS), was quickly marginalized. Religious disputation is generally considered incompatible with reasoned political debate. Of course, political leaders may openly practice their religion (for instance, president Nicolas Sarkozy is a Christian, specifically a Catholic), but they are expected to refrain from mixing their private religious life with their public functions.

The term was originally the French equivalent of the term laity, i.e. everyone who is not Catholic clergy. After the French Revolution this meaning changed and it came to mean keeping religion separate from the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of government. This includes prohibitions on having a state religion, as well as for the government to endorse any religious position, be it a religion or atheism.

Although the term was current throughout the nineteenth century, France did not fully separate church and state until the passage of its 1905 law on the separation of Church and State, prohibiting the state from recognizing or funding any religion (although it would not stop funding those already in place before 1905, i.e. Catholic churches). In the areas occupied by Germany at that time, which did not return to France until 1918, some German-style arrangements for the cooperation of church and state are still in effect today (see Alsace-Moselle).

The term is currently a core concept in the French constitution, whose Article 1 formally states that France is a secular republic ("La France est une République indivisible, laïque, démocratique et sociale."). Many see being discreet with one's religion as a necessity of being French. This has led to frequent divisions with non-Christian immigrants, especially with France's large Muslim population. The most recent debate has been over whether any religious apparel or displays by individual, such as the hijab, Sikh turban and (large) Christian crosses and Stars of David, should be banned from public schools. Finally after much political debate a law has been recently voted to ban them in schools, see French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools.

Turkey

Main article: Secularism in Turkey

In Turkey, a strong stance of secularism has held sway since Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's westernization movement in the early 20th century. On March 3, 1924 Turkey removed the caliphate system and all religious influence from the state. Sunni Islam, the majority religion, is now controlled by the Turkish government through the "Department of Religious Affairs", and is state-funded. However, Islamic views which are deemed political are censored in accordance with the principle of secularism.

This system of Turkish laïcité permeates both the government and religious sphere. The content of the weekly sermons in all state funded mosques has to be approved by the state. Also, independent Sunni communities are illegal. Minority religions, like Alevi Islam or Armenian or Greek Orthodoxy, are guaranteed by the constitution as individual faiths and are mostly tolerated, but this guarantee does not give any rights to religious communities. However the Treaty of Lausanne gives certain religious rights to Jews, Greeks, and Armenians, but not for example, to Syrian-Orthodox or Roman Catholics.

Recently, the reestablishment of the old Greek Orthodox seminary on an island near Istanbul became a political issue in regard to Turkey's accession to EU membership. The EU considers such prohibition to amount to suppression of religious freedom. However, it is pointed out that, if Greek Orthodoxy is allowed to reopen a school, it will become the only religion in Turkey with a right to an independent religious school. Recent attempts of the conservative government to outlaw adultery caused an outcry in Turkey and was seen as an attempt to legislate islamic values. Others point out that the legislation was intended to combat polygamy which is still a common social phenomenon in rural areas, although not recognized legally. Also, similar to France, people are not allowed to wear hijab in government institutions such as schools, the civil service or universities.

United States

In the United States, the First Amendment to the Constitution contains a similar concept, although the term "laicity" is not used either in the Constitution or elsewhere, and is in fact used as a term to contrast European with American secularism. That amendment includes clauses prohibiting both governmental interference with the "free exercise" of religion, as well as governmental "establishment" of religion. These clauses have been held by the courts to apply to both the federal and state governments. Together, the "free exercise clause" and "establishment clause" are considered to accomplish a "separation of church and state."

However, separation is not extended to bar religious conduct in public places or by public servants. Public servants, up to and including the U.S. President, often make proclamations of religious faith. In contrast to France, the wearing of religious insignia in public schools is largely noncontroversial as a matter of law in the U.S. In addition, the U.S. government regards religious institutions as tax-exempt 501(c)(3) non-profits (provided that they do not overtly interfere with politics), which some observers interpret as an implicit act of establishment.

In his opus Democracy in America, Alexis de Tocqueville notes the synergy between religion and democracy in the United States, and decries what he sees as the excesses of laïcité and anti-clericalism among French democrats.

See also

• 1825 Anti-Sacrilege Act
• Politics of Turkey
• Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
• Secular state
• Civil religion
• Secularism
• Separation of church and state
• Secular Humanism
• 1880 Jules Ferry laws
• 1905 French law on the separation of Church and State

External links

• BBC - h2g2 - Secularism - Laïcité
• The deep roots of French secularism, article by Henri Astier on BBC News online, Sept 1st, 2004
• Karakas, Cemal (2007): Turkey. Islam and Laicism Between the Interests of State, Politics and Society. Peace Research Institute Frankfurt (PRIF), Germany, PRIF-Report No. 78/2007.