This article is about the philosophical term. For the metal band, see
Skepticism (band).
- "Skeptic" redirects here. For magazines, see Skeptic (magazine) and The Skeptic
In ordinary usage,
skepticism or
scepticism (
Greek: skeptomai, to look about, to consider; see also
spelling differences) refers to
- an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or toward a particular object,
- the doctrine that true knowledge or knowledge in a particular area is uncertain, or
- the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is characteristic of skeptics (Merriam–Webster).
In
philosophy, skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. These include propositions about
- the limitations of knowledge,
- a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing,
- the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values,
- a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment,
- a lack of confidence in positive motives for human conduct or positive outcomes for human enterprises, that is, cynicism and pessimism (Keeton, 1962).
In
classical philosophy, skepticism refers to the teachings and the traits of the
Skeptikoi, a school of philosophers of whom it was said that they "asserted nothing but only opined" (Liddell and Scott). In this sense,
philosophical skepticism, or
pyrrhonism, is the philosophical position that one should avoid the postulation of final truths. Turned on itself, skepticism would question that skepticism is a valid perspective at all.
In
religion, skepticism refers to "doubt concerning basic religious principles (as immortality, providence, and revelation)" (Merriam–Webster).
The word skepticism can characterize a position on a single claim, but in scholastic circles more frequently describes a lasting mindset and an approach to accepting or rejecting new information. Individuals who proclaim to have a skeptical outlook are frequently called
skeptics, often without regard to whether it is philosophical skepticism or empirical skepticism that they profess.
Philosophical skepticism
In philosophical skepticism,
pyrrhonism is a position that refrains from making truth claims. A philosophical skeptic does not claim that truth is impossible (which would be a truth claim). The label is commonly used to describe other philosophies which appear similar to philosophical skepticism, such as "academic" skepticism, an ancient variant of Platonism that claimed knowledge of truth was impossible.
Empiricism is a closely related, but not identical, position to philosophical skepticism. Empiricists see empiricism as a pragmatic compromise between philosophical skepticism and
nomothetic science; philosophical skepticism is in turn sometimes referred to as "radical empiricism."
Philosophical skepticism originated in ancient
Greek philosophy. One of its first proponents was
Pyrrho of
Elis (c. 360-275 B.C.), who traveled and studied as far as
India, and propounded the adoption of 'practical' skepticism. Subsequently, in the 'New Academy'
Arcesilaus (c. 315-241 B.C.) and
Carneades (c. 213-129 B.C.) developed more theoretical perspectives, by which conceptions of absolute truth and falsity were refuted as uncertain. Carneades criticized the views of the Dogmatists, especially supporters of
Stoicism, asserting that absolute certainty of knowledge is impossible.
Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), the main authority for Greek skepticism, developed the position further, incorporating aspects of
empiricism into the basis for asserting knowledge.
Greek skeptics criticized the
Stoics, accusing them of
dogmatism. For the skeptics, the
logical mode of argument was untenable, as it relied on propositions which could not be said to be either true or false without relying on further propositions. This was the
regress argument, whereby every proposition must rely on other propositions in order to maintain its validity. In addition, the skeptics argued that two propositions could not rely on each other, as this would create a
circular argument (as p implies q and q implies p). For the skeptics such logic was thus an inadequate measure of truth which could create as many problems as it claimed to have solved. Truth was not, however, necessarily unobtainable, but rather an idea which did not yet exist in a pure form. Although skepticism was accused of denying the possibility of truth, in actual fact it appears to have mainly been a critical school which merely claimed that logicians had not discovered truth.
René Descartes is credited for developing a global skepticism, as a
thought experiment in his attempt to find absolute certainty on which to base as the foundation of his philosophy.
David Hume has also been described as a global skeptic. However, Descartes was not himself a skeptic and developed his theory of an absolute certainty to disprove other skeptics who argued that there is no certainty.
Scientific skepticism
Main article: Scientific skepticism
A scientific (or
empirical) skeptic is one who questions the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to a systematic investigation. The
scientific method details the specific process by which this investigation of
reality is conducted. Considering the rigor of the scientific method, science itself may simply be thought of as an organized form of skepticism. This does not mean that the scientific skeptic is necessarily a scientist who conducts live experiments (though this may be the case), but that the skeptic generally accepts claims that are in his/her view likely to be true based on testable
hypotheses and
critical thinking.
Common topics that scientifically-skeptical literature questions include health claims surrounding certain foods, procedures, and medicines, such as
homeopathy,
Reiki,
Thought Field Therapy (TFT),
vertebral subluxations; the plausibility of
supernatural entities (such as
ghosts,
poltergeists,
angels, and
gods); as well as the existence of
ESP/
telekinesis,
psychic powers, and
telepathy (and thus the credibility of
parapsychology); topics in
cryptozoology,
Bigfoot, the
Loch Ness monster,
alien visitations,
UFOs,
crop circles,
astrology,
repressed memories,
creationism,
dowsing,
conspiracy theories, and other claims the skeptic sees as unlikely to be true on scientific grounds.
Most empirical or scientific skeptics do not profess philosophical skepticism. Whereas a philosophical skeptic may deny the very existence of knowledge, an empirical skeptic merely seeks likely proof before accepting that knowledge.
Activist skepticism
Main article: Debunker
Activist skeptics, self-described "debunkers" are a subset of scientific skeptics who aim to expose in public what they see as the truth behind specific extraordinary claims. Debunkers may publish books, air TV programs, create websites, or use other means to advocate their message. In some cases they may challenge claimants outright or even stage elaborate
hoaxes to prove their point, such as
Project Alpha.
Because debunkers often challenge popular ideas, many are not strangers to controversy. Critics of debunkers sometimes accuse them of robbing others of hope. Debunkers frequently reply that it is the claimant, whom they many times accuse of exploiting public gullibility, who is guilty of abuse.
Habitual debunkers are sometimes called
pseudoskeptics or pathological skeptics and accused of intentionally relying on pseudoscience masquerading as empirical skepticism.
Religious skepticism
Religious skepticism is skepticism regarding faith-based claims. Religious skeptics may focus on the core tenets of
religions, such as the existence of divine beings, or reports of earthly
miracles. A religious skeptic is not necessarily an
atheist or
agnostic.
Notes and references
- A Greek-English Lexicon, Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones, with the assistance of Roderick McKenzie, Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK, 1940. Online.
- Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged, W.A. Neilson, T.A. Knott, P.W. Carhart (eds.), G. & C. Merriam Company, Springfield, MA, 1950.
- Butchvarov, Panayot, Skepticism About the External World (Oxford University Press, 1998).
- Keeton, Morris T., "skepticism", pp. 277–278 in Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
- Runes, D.D. (ed.), Dictionary of Philosophy, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, 1962.
Further reading
See also
Literary skeptics
Organizations
Media
External links
- Skeptical Inquiry at the Open Directory Project
- Kleiner, Kurt (2005), "Most Scientific Papers are Probably Wrong", NewScientist, 30 Aug 2005 Eprint
- Responding to Skepticism, by Keith DeRose. Introduction to Skepticism: A Contemporary Reader (Oxford University Press, 1999). Describes the main lines of response to philosophical skepticism
- Skepticism and the Veil of Perception, book about philosophical skepticism & perceptual knowledge
- The Problem of Defeasible Justification, paper about philosophical skepticism
- The problem of skepticism, explained at the Galilean Library
- A critique of Martin Gardner, "In the Name of Skepticism: Martin Gardner's Misrepresentations of General Semantics] ]," by Bruce I. Kodish, appeared in General Semantics Bulletin, Number 71, 2004. The Bulletin is published by the Institute of General Semantics
- J C Lester, "A skeptical Look at 'A Skeptical Look at Karl Popper'"
- Peter Suber, Classical Skepticism. An exposition of Pyrrho's skepticism through the writings of Sextus Empiricus
- Outstanding skeptics of the 20th century - Skeptical Inquirer Magazine
- Skeptics Canada Society for Critical Inquiry
- Sceptics in Russia (Manifesto)
- The Skeptic Friends Network
Certainty is the state of being without doubt. Certainty is a condition of the total continuity of foundational inquiry. Something is certain only if no skepticism can occur. Philosophy (at least historically) struggles toward certainty.
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Nihilism (from the Latin nihil, nothing) is a philosophical position, sometimes called an anti-philosophy, which argues that the world, especially past and current human existence, is without objective meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value.
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God
General approaches
Agnosticism Atheism
Deism Dystheism
Henotheism Ignosticism
Monism Monotheism
Natural theology Nontheism
Pandeism Panentheism
Pantheism Polytheism
Theism Theology
Transtheism
Specific conceptions
..... Click the link for more information. Uncertainty is a term used in subtly different ways in a number of fields, including philosophy, statistics, economics, finance, insurance, psychology, engineering and science.
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Probability is the likelihood that something is the case or will happen. Probability theory is used extensively in areas such as statistics, mathematics, science and philosophy to draw conclusions about the likelihood of potential events and the underlying mechanics of
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An approximation is an inexact representation of something that is still close enough to be useful. Although approximation is most often applied to numbers, it is also frequently applied to such things as mathematical functions, shapes, and physical laws.
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Belief is the psychological state in which an individual is convinced of the truth or validity of a proposition or premise (argument). Belief does not necessarily confer the ability to adequately prove one's main contention to other people, who may disagree.
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Certainty is the state of being without doubt. Certainty is a condition of the total continuity of foundational inquiry. Something is certain only if no skepticism can occur. Philosophy (at least historically) struggles toward certainty.
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Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and behavior, decision and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences.
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Skepticism is a doom metal band from Finland. Formed in 1991, they are regarded as one of the pioneers of a sub-genre of doom metal called funeral doom.
Overview of studio work
..... Click the link for more information. Skeptic is a quarterly science education and science advocacy magazine published internationally by The Skeptics Society, a nonprofit organization devoted to promoting scientific skepticism and resisting the spread of pseudoscience, superstition, and irrational beliefs.
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The Skeptic may refer to:
- The Skeptic, an Australian magazine
- The Skeptic (UK magazine), a UK magazine
- Skeptic (magazine), the magazine of The Skeptics Society, published in the U.S
..... Click the link for more information. Ancient Greek refers to the second stage in the history of the Greek language[1] as it existed during the Archaic (9th–6th centuries BC) and Classical (5th–4th centuries BC) periods in Greece.
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American and British English spelling differences are one aspect of American and British English differences.
In the early 18th century, English spelling was not standardised. Different standards became noticeable after the publishing of influential dictionaries.
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Doctrine (Latin: doctrina) is a code of beliefs or "a body of teachings" or "instructions", taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system. The Greek analogy is the etymology of catechism.
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Knowledge is defined (Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i) expertise, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject, (ii) what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and information or
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Philosophy is the discipline concerned with questions of how one should live (ethics); what sorts of things exist and what are their essential natures (metaphysics); what counts as genuine knowledge (epistemology); and what are the correct principles of reasoning (logic).
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Cynicism (Greek: Kυνισμός) was originally the philosophy of a group of ancient Greeks called the Cynics, founded by Antisthenes.
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Pessimism, from the Latin pessimus (worst), denotes a belief that the experienced world is the worst possible. It describes a general belief that things are bad, and tend to become worse; or that looks to the eventual triumph of evil over good; it is the antonym of
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This page lists some links to ancient philosophy. In Europe, the spread of Christianity through the Roman world marked the end of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of Medieval philosophy.
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This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.
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..... Click the link for more information. Pyrrho (ca. 360 BC - ca. 270 BC), a Greek philosopher of classical antiquity, is credited as being the first Skeptic philosopher, and the inspiration for the school known as Pyrrhonism founded by Aenesidemus in the 1st century BC.
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religion is a set of common beliefs and practices generally held by a group of people, often codified as prayer, ritual, and religious law. Religion also encompasses ancestral or cultural traditions, writings, history, and mythology, as well as personal faith and mystic experience.
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This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details.
This article has been tagged since September 2007.
..... Click the link for more information. In philosophy generally, empiricism is a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, while discounting the notion of innate ideas.
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Nomothetic literally means "proposition of the law" (Greek derivation) and is used in both philosophy (see also Nomothetic and idiographic) and in psychology with differing meanings.
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on modern philosophy, as well as modern science. Clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day.
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Pyrrho (ca. 360 BC - ca. 270 BC), a Greek philosopher of classical antiquity, is credited as being the first Skeptic philosopher, and the inspiration for the school known as Pyrrhonism founded by Aenesidemus in the 1st century BC.
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Elis, or Eleia (Greek, Modern: Ήλιδα Ilida, Ancient/Katharevousa: Ἦλις, also Ēlis, Doric: Ἆλις
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The term Indian philosophy (Sankrit: Darshanas), may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and Jain philosophy.
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